Biology HSC Science (General) 11th Standard Maharashtra State Board Syllabus 2025-26

• What is ‘Living’?
• Characteristics of living organisms

1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Cellular structure
4. Response to stimuli (Consciousness)
5. Homeostasis
6. Metabolism

• Difference  between anabolism and catabolism

• Taxonomical Aids
• Usage of Taxonomical Aids

1. Herbarium
2. Botanical Gardens
3. Biological museums
4. Zoological Parks
5. Key
6. Molecular taxonomy
7. Automated species identification tools

• Taxonomy

• Artificial
• Natural
• Phylogenetic

• Three Domains of life

• Domain Archaea
• Domain Bacteria
• Domain Eukarya (Eukaryotes)

• Taxon

• Species
• Genus
• Family
• Cohort/Order
• Class 
• Division/Phylum
• Sub-kingdom
• Kingdom

• Kingdom Monera - Archebacteria, Eubacteria, Mycoplasma
• Kingdom Protista - Plant like protista, Animal like Protista, Dinoflagellates, Fungi like protista, Euglenoids
• Kingdom Plantae
• Kingdom Fungi - Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes
• Kingdom Animalia

• Viruses - Types of viruses
• Viroids
• Lichens

• Division: Thallophyta
  1) Chlorophyceae (green algae)
  2) Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
  3) Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
• Bryophyta (Bryon: moss; phyton: plant) 
  1) Liverworts (Hepaticeae)
  2) Mosses (Musci)
• Pteridophyta (Pteron: feather, phyton: plant)

• Gymnospermae (Gymnos: naked, sperma: seed)
• Angiospermae (Angios: enclosed:  vessel, Sperma: seed)
• Angiosperms are subdivided into two classes: Dicotyledonae, Monocotyledonae

• Types of the life cycle - Diplontic, Haplontic, and Haplo-Diplontic.

• Cell aggregate plan
• Blind sac body plan
• Tube within the tube body plan

• Phylum: Porifera (Pori-pores; Feron-bearing)
• Phylum: Cnidaria
• Phylum: Ctenophora
• Phylum: Platyhelminthes (platy -flat, helminth -worms)
• Phylum: Aschelminthes (ascus-sac, helminth-worm) / Nemathelminthes (NEMA-thread)
• Phylum: Annelida (Annulus: Ring)  
• Phylum: Arthropoda (Atheros: Joint, Podos: leg)
• Phylum: Mollusca (Mollis: soft)
• Phylum: Echinodermata (Echinus - Spines, derma - skin)
• Phylum: Hemichordata (Hemi: Half, Chordata: Rod)
• Phylum: Chordata
  a) Subphylum: Urochordata or Tunicata
  b) Subphylum: Cephalochordata
  c) Subphylum: Vertebrata -
  1. Division: A Gnathostomata
  2. Division: Gnathostomata
  i) Superclass: Pisces
  - Class Chondrichthyes: (chondron: cartilage, ichthyes: fish)
  - Class: Osteichthyes (Osteon: bone, ichthyes: fish) 
  ii) Superclass: Tetrapod
  - Class: Amphibia (Amphi: both, bias: life)
  - Class: Reptilia (Repere: to creep or to crawl)
  - Class: Aves (Avis: bird)
  - Class: Mammalia (mammae: breasts, nipples)

• The Fundamental Unit of Life: Cell
• Discovery of Cells

• Prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic Cells 
• Mesokaryotes Cells

Components of Eukaryotic cell:

1. Cell wall
2. Cell membrane / Plasma membrane/ biomembrane
3. Cytoplasm
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
5. Golgi complex
6. Lysosomes
7. Vacuoles
8. Glyoxysomes
9. Mitochondria (Singular: Mitochondrion)
10. Plastids
11. Ribosomes
12. Nucleus
13. Cytoskeleton

1. Purely proteinaceous enzymes
2. Conjugated enzymes

• Oxidoreductases 
• Transferases 
• Hydrolases
• Lyases 
• Isomerases 
• Ligases or Synthetases

• Lock and Key model
• Induced Fit model (Flexible Model)

• Metabolism
• Types of pathways

1. Catabolic pathways
2. Anabolic pathway

• Amitosis (Direct Cell Division)
• Mitosis
• Closed and Open Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
• Significance of Mitosis
• Meiosis

• Meiosis I-Reduction Division

• Significance of Meiosis

• Amitosis
• Mitosis
  1. Prophase
  2. Metaphase
  3. Anaphase
  4. Telophase

• Cytokinesis
• Significance of mitosis
• Death of cell

• Meiosis
  A. First meiotic division or Heterotypic division (Meiosis I)

• Prophase -I - Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene, Diakinesis
• Metaphase - I
• Anaphase - I
• Telophase - I
• Cytokinesis-I
  B. Second meiotic division or Homotypic Division (Meiosis II)
• Prophase-II
• Metaphase-II
• Anaphase-II
• Telophase-II
• Cytokinesis-II
• Significance of Meiosis

• Introduction
• Differences Between Plant and Animal Tissues

• Introduction
• Types of Meristematic Tissue

1. Epidermal tissue system
2. Ground tissue system
3. Vascular tissue system

• Introduction to Tissue System, Types and Characteristics of tissue System

• Formation of cambial ring
• Secondary growth in roots

1. Anatomy of Dicot Root
2. Anatomy of monocot root
3. Anatomy of Dicot Stem (Sunflower)
4. Anatomy of Monocot Stem
5. Anatomy of Leaf
   V. S. of Typical dicot leaf - Upper epidermis, Mesophyll, Vascular system, Lower epidermis
6. Isobilateral Leaf - A typical monocot leaf

A. Root:

• Typical Root Structure
• Function of Root
• Types of Root -  Tap root, Adventitious roots,
• Modification of root - Modifications of tap root, For Respiration
• Modifications of Adventitious Roots -
  a) Food storage
  b) For mechanical support
  1. Prop roots
  2. Stilt roots
  3. Climbing roots
  4. Clinging Roots
  5. Plank Roots/Buttresses
  6. Buoyont roots
  c) For special functions 
  1. Epiphytic roots
  2. Sucking roots or Haustoria

B. Stem:

• Modifications of stem
  a. Underground stem
  1. Rhizome
  2. Stem Tuber
  3. Bulb
  4. Corm
  b. Subaerial stem
  1. Trailer
  2. Runner 
  3. Stolons
  4. Sucker
  5. Offset
  c. Aerial modification
  1. Thorn
  2. Phylloclade
  3. Cladodes
  4. Cladophylls
  5. Bulbils
  

C. Leaf

1. Typical leaf structure
   Leaf base
   Petiole or mesopodium
   Lamina or epipodium
2. Leaf venation
3. Types of leaf
   a. Pinnately compound
   b. Palmately compound
4. Modification of leaves
   a. Leaf spines
   b. Leaf tendril
   c. Leaf hooks
   d. Phyllode
5. Phyllotaxy

D. Inflorescence

• Types of inflorescence - Racemose, Cymose
  

E. Flower 

1. Insertion of floral whorls - Hypogyny, Perigyny, Epigyny.
2. Floral parts and their structure
   1. Calyx (K) 
   2. Corolla (C) - Perianth (P), Aestivation, Epicalyx
   3. Androecium (A)
   Typical stamen shows three different parts: Anther, Filament, Connective
   4. Gynoecium (G)
   - Placentation
   - Types of Placentation: Marginal, Axile, Parietal, Basal, Free central.

F. Fruit

G. Seed

• Fabaceae 
• Solanaceae

• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Genus
• Species

• Shape and size
• Coloration
• Exoskeleton
• Body Division
• Head
  1. Antennae
  2. Fenestrae
  3. Compound eyes
  4. Mouth parts
  i. Labrum (Upper lip) 
  ii. Mandibles (True jaws)
  iii. Maxillae (Accessory jaws)
  iv. Labium (lower lip)
  v. Hypopharynx (Tongue)
• Thorax
• Legs
• Wings
• Spiracles
• Abdomen

• Mouth
• Fore-gut (Stomodaeum)
• Mid-gut (Mesenteron)
• Hind-gut (Proctodaeum)
• Salivary Glands
• Food and digestion

1. Haemolymph
2. Haemocoel - Sinuses, Dorsal blood vessel, Blood circulation in cockroach.

• Respiratory System
• Exchange of Gases in Lungs
• Significance of Respiration

1. Male Reproductive System
2. Female Reproductive System
   Fertilization and formation of ootheca - Ootheca, Development of Eggs

• Control Measures
  1. Good Sanitation 
  2. Chemical control

• Two predominant types of chlorophylls

• Corpuscular Nature
• Wave Nature
• Dual Nature of Light

1. Ray optics or geometrical optics
2. Wave optics or physical optics
3. Particle nature of light

• Blackman - Law of limiting factors
• Factors affecting photosynthesis

1. External Factors:
   1) Availability of sunlight
   2) Temperature
   3) Water
   4) Humidity
   5) CO₂ Concentration [atmospheric]
   6) O₂ availability
2. Internal Factors:
   1) Number of leaves
   2) Size of leaves
   3) Leaf age
   4) Orientation of leaves
   5) Mesophyll cells and chloroplasts
   6) Internal CO₂ concentration
   7) Anatomy of leaf

• Why do we need energy?
• Formation of ATP
• Animals need more energy
• Birds and mammals need still more energy

• Introduction to Respiration
• Types of Respiration

• Cellular respiration
• Types of cellular respiration

1. Aerobic Respiration
2. Anaerobic Respiration

• Aerobic respiration in plant/animal
• Anaerobic respiration in plant/animal
• Differences in anaerobic respiration in plants and animals

• Glycolysis
• Glycolysis Pathway

• Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Oxidative Phosphorylation Steps

• TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
• Steps of TCA Cycle

• Fermentation
• Process of Fermentation
• Types of Fermentation

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
2. Alcohol Fermentation
3. Acetic acid Fermentation
4. Butyric acid Fermentation

• Advantages of Fermentation

• Introduction
• Modes of Nutrition
• Types of Nutrients

• Digestion
• Alimentary Canal 
• Digestive organs

• Teeth and Its Types
• Structure of a Tooth

• Introduction
• Function of the Oesophagus

• Introduction
• Function of the Stomach

• Introduction
• Functions of Small Intestine

• Introduction
• Functions of Pancreas

• Introduction
• Functions of the Large Intestine

• Introduction
• Functions of the Liver

• Digestion in the buccal cavity
• Digestion in the stomach
• Digestion in the small intestine 
• Action of pancreatic juice
• Action of intestinal juice 

• Disorders of the digestive system

1. Inflammation of the intestinal tract
2. Jaundice
3. Vomiting 
4. Diarrhoea
5. Constipation
6. Indigestion

• PEM (Protein-energy malnutrition)

1. Kwashiorkar
2. Marasmus

• Introduction
• Excretion in Plants
• Experiment
• Excretion in Human
• Formation of Urine
• Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)

• Modes of Excretion

1. Ammonotelism
2. Ureotelism 
3. Uricotelism 

• Nephridiopores
• Types of nephridia

1. Protonephridia
2. Metanephridia

• Introduction
• Human Excretory System Organs
• Excretion in Humans
• Mechanism of Excretion in Humans
• Dialysis

• Kidneys
• Internal Structure of the kidney

• Kidney tubule
• Structure of a Kidney tubule
• Blood supply to the kidney tubules

• Ultrafiltration
• Reabsorption
• Tubular secretion (Renal Secretion)
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• Collecting duct

• Excretory role of skin
• Excretory role of lungs
• Excretory role of liver

• Kidney stones
• Uremia
• Nephritis
• Renal Failure
• Diabetes
• Urinary tract infection
• Haemodialysis
• Peritoneal dialysis 
• Kidney transplant
• Renal Calculi
• Glomerulonephritis

• Movements
• Locomotion
  1. Amoeboid movement
  2. Ciliary movement
  3. Whorling movement 
  4. Muscular movement

• Some important antagonistic muscles

1. Flexor and Extensor
2. Abductor and Adductor 
3. Pronator and Supinator
4. Levator and Depressor
5. Protractor and Retractor 
6. Sphincters 

• Structure of myosin and actin filaments
  - Myosin filament
  - Actin filament
  i. F actin
  ii. Tropomyosin
  iii. Troponin

• Mechanism of muscle contraction
• Steps of muscle contraction

• Skeletal System and Its Functions

1. Axial Skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton

• Synarthroses
• Sutures
• Syndesmoses
• Gomphoses
  A. Cartilagenous or slightly movable joints - Synchondroses, Symphysis
  B. Synovial joints or freely movable joints - Pivot joint, Ball and socket joint, Hinge joint, Condyloid joint, Gliding joint, Saddle joint.

• Muscular dystrophy
• Myasthenia gravis

• Arthritis 
  i) Osteoarthritis
  ii) Gouty arthritis (Gout)
  iii) Rheumotoid arthritis
• Osteoporosis