Topics
Measurements and Experimentation
- Measurements
- Physical Quantities
- Unit and Its Types
- Unit Systems
- International System of Units (Si System)
- Unit Prefixes
- Measurement of Length
- Measuring Smaller Distances
- Measuring Larger Distances
- Measurement of Mass
- Measurement of Time
- Rules and Conventions for Writing SI Units and Their Symbols
- Vernier Callipers
- Principle of Vernier
- Screw Gauge
- Principle of Screw Gauge
- Simple Pendulum for Time
- A Time Period of Oscillation and Frequency
- Measurements Using Common Instruments
Motion in One Dimension
- Scalar and Vector Quantities
- Motion and Rest
- Motion Along a Straight Line
- Distance and Displacement
- Speed
- Types of Speed
- Velocity
- Types of Velocity
- Distinguish Between Speed and Velocity
- Acceleration and Retardation
- Types of Acceleration
- Acceleration Due to Gravity (Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration)
- Graphical Representation of Motion
- Displacement - Time Graph Or Distance - Time Graph
- Velocity - Time Graphs
- Acceleration - Time Graph
- Motion Under Gravity
- Equations of Motion by Graphical Method
- Derivation of Velocity - Time Relation by Graphical Method
- Measuring the Rate of Motion - Speed with Direction
- Rate of Change of Velocity
Laws of Motion
- Effect of Force
- Types of Force: Contact Force
- Types of Force: Non-Contact Force
- Newton's First Law of Motion
- Inertia and Mass
- Types of Inertia
- Linear Momentum
- Change in Momentum
- Rate of Change of Momentum
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion in Terms of Rate of Change of Momentum
- Newton's Third Law of Motion
- Force Due to Gravity
- Acceleration Due to Gravity (Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration)
- Free Fall
- Concept of Mass and Weight
- Gravitational Units of Force
- Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
Fluids
Fluids
- Introduction of Fluid
- Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
- Thrust and Pressure
- Factors Affecting Pressure
- Pressure of liquid
- Pressure Exerted by a Liquid Column
- Law of Liquid Pressure
- Consequences of Liquid Pressure
- Pascal’s Law
- Application of Pascal’s Law
- Hydraulic Machines: Hydraulic Press (Or Bramah Press)
- Atmospheric Pressure
- Consequences of Atmospheric Pressure
- Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure
- Mercury Barometer (Simple Barometer)
- Fortin’s Barometer
- Aneroid Barometer
- Variation of Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude
- Weather Forecast by the Use of Arometer
- Altimeter
Buoyancy, Upthrust
- Buoyancy Force (Upthrust Force)
- Characteristic Properties of Upthrust
- Reason for Upthrust
- Upthrust is Equal to the Weight of Displaced Liquid (Mathematical Proof)
- Archimedes Principle
- Solid Bodies with density (ρ) greater than density of liquid (ρL) sink while with density (ρ) less than density of liquid (ρL) Float
- Density and It’s Unit
- Relative Density and Its Unit
- Relationship Between Density and Relative Density
- Determination of Relative Density of a Solid Substance by Archimedes’ Principle
- Determination of Relative Density of a Liquid by Archimedes’ Principle
- Principle of Floatation (Laws of Flotation)
- Relation Between Volume of Submerged Part of a Floating Body, the Densities of Liquid and the Body
- Application of the Principle of Floatation
Heat and Energy
- Heat and Its Unit
- The Temperature and a Thermometer
- Expansion of Substances (Thermal Expansion)
- Expansion of Solids
- Expansion of Liquids
- Expansion of Gases
- Anomalous Expansion of Water
- Anomalous Behaviour of Water
- Consequences of Anomalous Expansion of Water
- Concept of Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
- Application of Laws of Thermodynamics in Energy Flow
- Source of Energy
- Conventional energy resources or non-renewable energy resources
- Electricity Generation using Solar Energy
- Solar Energy Devices
- Electricity Generation using Wind Energy
- Electricity Generation using Hydroelectric Energy
- Bio-energy
- Energy from the Sea
- Geothermal Energy
- Power Plants Based on Nuclear Energy
- Conservation of Coal, Petroleum, and Natural Resources
- Protecting our environment
- Energy Degradation
- Green House Effect
- Preventive Measures of Green House Effect
- Global Warming
- Preventive Measures of Global Warming
- Future Predictions of Global Warming
Light
- Reflection of Light
- Types of Reflection
- Terms Used in Reflection of Light
- Law of Reflection of Light
- Verification of the Law of Reflection of Light
- Formation of Image by Reflection: Real and Virtual Image
- Formation of Image of a Point Object by a Plane Mirror
- Image of an Extended Object Formed by a Plane Mirror
- Position of Image
- Lateral Inversion
- Plane Mirror
- Images Formed by a Plane Mirrors
- Images Formed in Two Inclined Mirrors
- Images Formed in a Pair of Mirrors Placed Parallel to Each Other
- Images Formed by Two Mirrors Placed Perpendicular to Each Other
- Spherical Mirrors
- Rules for the Construction of Image Formed by a Spherical Mirror
- Focus and Focal Length
- Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors
- Concave Mirror
- Image Formation by Concave Mirror
- Convex Mirror
- Image Formation by Convex Mirror
- Relationship Between the Focal Length and Radius of Curvature
- Sign Convention
- Mirror Equation/Formula
- Distinction Between a Plane Mirror, Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror
Sound
- Sound
- Production of Sound
- Propagation of Sound
- Sound Need a Medium to Travel
- Characteristics of a Sound Wave
- Representation of a Wave
- Relationship Between the Wavelength, Wave Velocity and Frequency
- Speed of Sound (Velocity of Sound)
- Speed of Sound in Different Media
- Difference Between the Sound and Light Waves
- Factors Affecting Speed of Sound in Gas
- Factors Not Affecting Speed of Sound in a Gas
- Experimental Determination of Speed of Sound in Air
- Properties of Sounds
- Audibility and Range
- Ultrasonic Sound Or Ultrasound
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity
- Electric cell
- Electric Current
- Symbols and Functions of Various Components of an Electric Circuits
- Electric Circuit
- Types of Circuits: Simple Circuit
- Conductors and Insulators
- Flow of Charges (Electrons) Between Conductor
- Direction of the Electric Current - Conventional and Electronic Flow
- Potential and Potential Difference
- Resistance (R)
- Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor
- Ohm's Law (V = IR)
- Conservation of Electrical Energy
- Social Initiatives for Energy
Magnetism
- Magnet
- Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials
- Induced Magnetism
- Properties of magnetic lines of force
- Earth’s Magnetism
- Plotting of Uniform Magnetic Field Lines of Earth
- Plotting of Non Uniform Magnetic Field of a Strong Bar Magnet and Neutral Points
- Neutral Points in Magnetic Fields
- Electromagnet
- Making of an Electromagnet
- Permanent Magnet and Electromagnet
- Applications of Electromagnets
Types of Reflection:
1. Regular Reflection of Light: The reflection of light from a smooth and plane surface is called regular reflection.
- All the incident rays are parallel to each other.
- The angles of incidence (i₁, i₂, i₃,...) for all the rays are equal to their corresponding angles of reflection (r₁, r₂, r₃,...).
- As a result, the reflected rays are also parallel to one another.
- For example: mirrors or still water surfaces reflect light in this regular manner.
In Figure (a):
- The blue rays (incident rays) strike the smooth surface.
- Since the surface is even, the reflected rays (red) emerge in parallel directions, maintaining the equality of angles:
i₁ = i₂ = i₃ = r₁ = r₂ = r₃.
2. Irregular Reflection of Light: The reflection of light from a rough or uneven surface is called irregular reflection.
- The incident rays may be parallel, but due to the uneven surface, the angles of incidence (i₁, i₂, i₃,...) are not equal.
- As a result, the angles of reflection (r₁, r₂, r₃,...) also vary:
i₁ ≠ i₂ ≠ i₃ and r₁ ≠ r₂ ≠ r₃. - The reflected rays scatter in different directions and are not parallel to one another.
- For example: walls, rough roads, or crumpled paper scatter light irregularly.
In Figure (b):
- The blue rays (incident rays) strike the rough surface at uneven points.
- Because of the irregularities, the angles of incidence differ for each ray, leading to reflected rays (red) spreading in various directions.
Reflection of light from a smooth and rough surface
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