Topics
Measurements and Experimentation
- Measurements
- Physical Quantities
- Unit and Its Types
- Unit Systems
- International System of Units (Si System)
- Unit Prefixes
- Measurement of Length
- Measuring Smaller Distances
- Measuring Larger Distances
- Measurement of Mass
- Measurement of Time
- Rules and Conventions for Writing SI Units and Their Symbols
- Vernier Callipers
- Principle of Vernier
- Screw Gauge
- Principle of Screw Gauge
- Simple Pendulum for Time
- A Time Period of Oscillation and Frequency
- Measurements Using Common Instruments
Motion in One Dimension
- Scalar and Vector Quantities
- Motion and Rest
- Motion Along a Straight Line
- Distance and Displacement
- Speed
- Types of Speed
- Velocity
- Types of Velocity
- Distinguish Between Speed and Velocity
- Acceleration and Retardation
- Types of Acceleration
- Acceleration Due to Gravity (Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration)
- Graphical Representation of Motion
- Displacement - Time Graph Or Distance - Time Graph
- Velocity - Time Graphs
- Acceleration - Time Graph
- Motion Under Gravity
- Equations of Motion by Graphical Method
- Derivation of Velocity - Time Relation by Graphical Method
- Measuring the Rate of Motion - Speed with Direction
- Rate of Change of Velocity
Laws of Motion
- Effect of Force
- Types of Force: Contact Force
- Types of Force: Non-Contact Force
- Newton's First Law of Motion
- Inertia and Mass
- Types of Inertia
- Linear Momentum
- Change in Momentum
- Rate of Change of Momentum
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion in Terms of Rate of Change of Momentum
- Newton's Third Law of Motion
- Force Due to Gravity
- Acceleration Due to Gravity (Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration)
- Free Fall
- Concept of Mass and Weight
- Gravitational Units of Force
- Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
Fluids
Fluids
- Introduction of Fluid
- Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
- Thrust and Pressure
- Factors Affecting Pressure
- Pressure of liquid
- Pressure Exerted by a Liquid Column
- Law of Liquid Pressure
- Consequences of Liquid Pressure
- Pascal’s Law
- Application of Pascal’s Law
- Hydraulic Machines: Hydraulic Press (Or Bramah Press)
- Atmospheric Pressure
- Consequences of Atmospheric Pressure
- Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure
- Mercury Barometer (Simple Barometer)
- Fortin’s Barometer
- Aneroid Barometer
- Variation of Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude
- Weather Forecast by the Use of Arometer
- Altimeter
Buoyancy, Upthrust
- Buoyancy Force (Upthrust Force)
- Characteristic Properties of Upthrust
- Reason for Upthrust
- Upthrust is Equal to the Weight of Displaced Liquid (Mathematical Proof)
- Archimedes Principle
- Solid Bodies with density (ρ) greater than density of liquid (ρL) sink while with density (ρ) less than density of liquid (ρL) Float
- Density and It’s Unit
- Relative Density and Its Unit
- Relationship Between Density and Relative Density
- Determination of Relative Density of a Solid Substance by Archimedes’ Principle
- Determination of Relative Density of a Liquid by Archimedes’ Principle
- Principle of Floatation (Laws of Flotation)
- Relation Between Volume of Submerged Part of a Floating Body, the Densities of Liquid and the Body
- Application of the Principle of Floatation
Heat and Energy
- Heat and Its Unit
- The Temperature and a Thermometer
- Expansion of Substances (Thermal Expansion)
- Expansion of Solids
- Expansion of Liquids
- Expansion of Gases
- Anomalous Expansion of Water
- Anomalous Behaviour of Water
- Consequences of Anomalous Expansion of Water
- Concept of Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
- Application of Laws of Thermodynamics in Energy Flow
- Source of Energy
- Conventional energy resources or non-renewable energy resources
- Solar Energy
- Solar Energy Devices
- Wind Energy
- Hydroelectric Energy
- Bio-energy
- Energy from the Sea
- Geothermal Energy
- Nuclear Energy
- Conservation of Coal, Petroleum, and Natural Resources
- Protecting our environment
- Energy Degradation
- Green House Effect
- Preventive Measures of Green House Effect
- Global Warming
- Preventive Measures of Global Warming
- Future Predictions of Global Warming
Light
- Reflection of Light
- Types of Reflection
- Terms Used in Reflection of Light
- Law of Reflection of Light
- Verification of the Law of Reflection of Light
- Formation of Image by Reflection: Real and Virtual Image
- Formation of Image of a Point Object by a Plane Mirror
- Image of an Extended Object Formed by a Plane Mirror
- Position of Image
- Lateral Inversion
- Plane Mirror
- Images Formed by a Plane Mirrors
- Images Formed in Two Inclined Mirrors
- Images Formed in a Pair of Mirrors Placed Parallel to Each Other
- Images Formed by Two Mirrors Placed Perpendicular to Each Other
- Spherical Mirrors
- Rules for the Construction of Image Formed by a Spherical Mirror
- Focus and Focal Length
- Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors
- Concave Mirror
- Image Formation by Concave Mirror
- Convex Mirror
- Image Formation by Convex Mirror
- Relationship Between the Focal Length and Radius of Curvature
- Sign Convention
- Mirror Equation/Formula
- Distinction Between a Plane Mirror, Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror
Sound
- Sound
- Production of Sound
- Propagation of Sound
- Sound Need a Medium to Travel
- Characteristics of a Sound Wave
- Representation of a Wave
- Relationship Between the Wavelength, Wave Velocity and Frequency
- Speed of Sound (Velocity of Sound)
- Speed of Sound in Different Media
- Difference Between the Sound and Light Waves
- Factors Affecting Speed of Sound in Gas
- Factors Not Affecting Speed of Sound in a Gas
- Experimental Determination of Speed of Sound in Air
- Properties of Sounds
- Audibility and Range
- Ultrasonic Sound Or Ultrasound
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity
- Electric cell
- Electric Current
- Symbols and Functions of Various Components of an Electric Circuits
- Electric Circuit
- Types of Circuits: Simple Circuit
- Conductors and Insulators
- Flow of Charges (Electrons) Between Conductor
- Direction of the Electric Current - Conventional and Electronic Flow
- Potential and Potential Difference
- Resistance (R)
- Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor
- Ohm's Law (V = IR)
- Conservation of Electrical Energy
- Social Initiatives for Energy
Magnetism
- Magnet
- Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials
- Induced Magnetism
- Properties of magnetic lines of force
- Earth’s Magnetism
- Plotting of Uniform Magnetic Field Lines of Earth
- Plotting of Non Uniform Magnetic Field of a Strong Bar Magnet and Neutral Points
- Neutral Points in Magnetic Fields
- Electromagnet
- Making of an Electromagnet
- Permanent Magnet and Electromagnet
- Applications of Electromagnets
- Introduction
- Linear Expansion
- Areal Expansion
- Volumetric Expansion
Introduction:
When solids are heated, their particles gain energy, vibrate more vigorously, and move slightly apart. This results in thermal expansion, which occurs in three forms:
- Linear expansion
- Areal expansion
- Volumetric expansion
Linear Expansion:
Linear expansion refers to the increase in the length of a solid object (e.g., rod or wire) when its temperature increases. If the initial length of the rod is l1, and its length increases to l2 after a temperature increase from T1 to T2, the change in length (l2−l1) is proportional to the original length (l1) and the temperature change (ΔT=T2−T1):
l2−l1=λ⋅l1⋅ΔT
l2=l1(1+λΔT)
Here:
- λ: coefficient of linear expansion (a constant specific to the material).
- Unit of λ: 1/°C.
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (λ),
Represents the change in length of a unit length of the material for every 1°C increase in temperature.
`lamda = (l_2-l_1) / (l_1DeltaT)`
Different materials have different λ values. Materials with higher λ expand more for the same temperature increase.
The expansion coefficients of some substances are given in the following table:
| Solid | Coefficient of Linear Expansion × 10⁶ (1/°C) | Liquid | Coefficient of Volume Expansion × 10³ (1/°C) | Gas | Expansion Coefficient × 10³ (1/°C) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Copper | 17 | Alcohol | 1.0 | Hydrogen | 3.66 |
| Aluminium | 23.1 | Water | 0.2 | Helium | 3.66 |
| Iron | 11.5 | Mercury | 0.2 | Nitrogen | 3.67 |
| Silver | 18 | Chloroform | 1.3 | Sulphur dioxide | 3.90 |
Areal Expansion:
Areal expansion refers to the increase in the area of a flat sheet of solid material when its temperature increases.
If the initial area is A1 and it increases to A2 after heating: A2 = A1(1+σΔT)
Here:
- σ: coefficient of areal expansion (specific to the material).
- ΔT: change in temperature.
Similar to linear expansion, but applies to two-dimensional surfaces. Areal expansion is approximately twice the linear expansion coefficient for most solids. σ≈2λ
Volumetric Expansion:
Volumetric expansion refers to the increase in the volume of a solid object when its temperature rises.
If the initial volume is V and it increases to V2 after heating: V2 = V1(1+βΔT)
Here:
- β: Coefficient of volumetric expansion (specific to the material).
- ΔT: Change in temperature.
Volumetric expansion applies to three-dimensional objects. β is approximately three times the linear expansion coefficient for most solids. β≈3λ
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