Concept of Acid, Base, and Salt

Topics

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
- Importance and Scope of Chemistry
- Historical Approach to Particulate Nature of Matter
- Nature of Matter
- The International System of Units (SI)
- Concept of Mass and Weight
- Scientific Notation
- Significant Figures
- Dimensional Analysis
- Law of Conservation of Mass
- Law of Constant Proportions (Law of Definite Proportions)
- Law of Multiple Proportions
- Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
- Avogadro's Law
- Dalton's Atomic Theory
- Atomic Mass
- Average Atomic Mass
- Molecular Mass
- Formula Mass
- Mole Concept
- Percentage Composition
- Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations - Introduction
- Limiting Reagent
- Concentration of a Solution
- Introduction of Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Structure of Atom
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
- Kossel and Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Octet Rule
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Covalent Bond
- Lewis Structures (Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules)
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Formal Charge
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Limitations of the Octet Rule
- Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
- Bond Length
- Bond Angle
- Bond Enthalpy
- Bond Order
- Resonance Structures
- Polarity of Bonds
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
- Valence Bond Theory
- Valence Bond Theory - Orbital Overlap Concept
- Valence Bond Theory - Directional Properties of Bonds
- Valence Bond Theory - Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals
- Valence Bond Theory - Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds
- Valence Bond Theory - Strength of Sigma (σ) bond and pi (π) bond
- Hybridisation - Introduction
- Types of Hybridisation
- Hybridisation of Elements Involving d Orbitals
- Molecular Orbital Theory - Introduction
- Formation of Molecular Orbitals - Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
- Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals
- Types of Molecular Orbitals
- Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals
- Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behaviour
- Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
- Hydrogen Bonding - Introduction
- Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond
- Types of Hydrogen Bonding
- Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Numericals
- States of Matter:- Gases and Liquids Numericals
States of Matter:- Gases and Liquids
- Intermolecular Forces - Introduction
- Dispersion Forces Or London Forces
- Dipole - Dipole Forces
- Dipole-induced Dipole Forces
- Hydrogen Bond
- Thermal Energy
- Intermolecular Forces Vs. Thermal Interactions
- The Gaseous State
- Boyle’s Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship)
- Charles’ Law (Temperature - Volume Relationship)
- Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure- Temperature Relationship)
- Avogadro's Law
- Derivation of Ideal Gas Equation
- Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance
- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
- Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Behaviour of Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour
- Liquefaction of Gases
- Vapour Pressure
- Surface Tension
- Viscosity
- States of Matter:- Gases and Liquids Numericals
Chemical Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamic Terms
- The State of the System
- The Internal Energy as a State Function - Work
- The Internal Energy as a State Function - Heat
- The Internal Energy as a State Function - the General Case
- Work
- Enthalpy, H - a Useful New State Function
- Enthalpy, H - Extensive and Intensive Properties
- Enthalpy, H - Heat Capacity
- Enthalpy, H - The Relationship Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas
- Measurement of ∆U and ∆H Calorimetry - ∆U Measurements
- Measurement of ∆U and ∆H Calorimetry - ∆H Measurements
- Standard Enthalpy of Reactions
- Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations
- Standard Enthalpy of Formation
- Thermochemical Equations
- Hess’ Law of Constant Heat Summation
- Standard Enthalpy of Combustion
- Enthalpy of Atomization
- Bond Enthalpy
- Enthalpy of Solution
- Lattice Enthalpy
- Is Decrease in Enthalpy a Criterion for Spontaneity
- Entropy and Spontaneity
- Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity
- Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Absolute Entropy and Third Law of Thermodynamics
- Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium
Equilibrium
- Concept of Equilibrium
- Solid-liquid Equilibrium
- Liquid-vapour Equilibrium
- Solid - Vapour Equilibrium
- Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Solid in Liquids
- Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Gases in Liquids
- General Characteristics of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes
- Equilibrium in Chemical Processes - Dynamic Equilibrium
- Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant
- Equilibrium Constant in Gaseous Systems
- Heterogeneous Equlibria
- Predicting the Extent of a Reaction
- Predicting the Direction of the Reaction
- Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
- Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant K, Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G
- Change of Concentration
- Change of Pressure
- Addition of Inert Gas
- Change of Temperature
- Effect of Catalyst
- Ionic Equilibrium in Solution
- Concept of Acid, Base, and Salt
- Arrhenius, Bronsted-lowry and Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases
- Concept of Ionization of Acids and Bases
- The Ionization Constant of Water and Its Ionic Product
- The pH Scale
- Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
- Ionization of Weak Bases
- Relation Between Ka and Kb
- Di- and Polybasic Acids and Di- and Polyacidic Bases
- Factors Affecting Acid Strength
- Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases
- Hydrolysis of Salts and the Ph of Their Solutions
- Buffer Solutions
- Concept of Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts
Redox Reactions
- Classical Idea of Redox Reactions - Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
- Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Introduction
- Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Competitive Electron Transfer Reactions
- Oxidation Number - Introduction
- Types of Redox Reactions
- Balancing Redox Reactions in Terms of Loss and Gain of Electrons
- Redox Reactions as the Basis for Titrations
- Limitations of Concept of Oxidation Number
- Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes
Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques
- Tetravalence of Carbon - Shapes of Organic Compounds
- Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas
- Three-dimensional Representation of Organic Molecules
- Classification of Organic Compounds
- The IUPAC System of Nomenclature
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds Having Functional Group(s)
- Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds
- Isomerism
- Fission of a Covalent Bond
- Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
- Electron Movement in Organic Reactions
- Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds
- Inductive Effect
- Resonance Structure
- Resonance Effect
- Electromeric Effect (E Effect)
- Hyperconjugation
- Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms
- Introduction of Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds
- Sublimation Method
- Crystallisation Method
- Simple Distillation Method
- Solvent Extraction (Using a Separating Funnel Method)
- Chromatography Method
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Other Elements
- Quantitative Analysis of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Quantitative Analysis of Nitrogen
- Quantitative Analysis of Halogens
- Quantitative Analysis of Sulphur
- Quantitative Analysis of Phosphorus
- Quantitative Analysis of Oxygen
Hydrocarbons
- Classification of Hydrocarbons
- Alkanes - Introduction
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Preparation of Alkanes from Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, Alkyl Halides and Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties of Alkanes
- Chemical Properties of Alkanes
- Conformations (Ethane)
- Alkenes - Introduction
- Structure of Double Bond (Ethene)
- Nomenclature
- Isomerism
- Preparation of Alkenes from Alkynes, Alkyl Halides, Vicinal Dihalides and Alcohols by Acidic Dehydration
- Physical Properties of Alkenes
- Chemical Properties of Alkenes
- Alkynes - Introduction
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Structure of Triple Bond
- Preparation of Alkynes from Calcium Carbide and Vicinal Dihalides
- Physical Properties of Alkynes
- Chemical Properties of Alkynes
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Structure of Benzene
- Aromaticity (Huckel Rule)
- Preparation of Benzene
- Physical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Chemical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Mechanism of Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Directive Influence of a Functional Group in Monosubstituted Benzene
- Carcinogenicity and Toxicity
Hydrogen
- Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table
- Dihydrogen
- Preparation of Dihydrogen
- Properties and Uses of Dihydrogen
- Ionic or Saline Hydrides
- Covalent or Molecular Hydride
- Metallic or Non-stoichiometric (or Interstitial) Hydrides
- Physical Properties of Water
- Structure of Water
- Structure of Ice
- Chemical Properties of Water
- Classification of water: Soft and Hard Water
- Temporary Hardness of Water
- Permanent Hardness of Water
- Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Physical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Chemical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Storage of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Heavy Water
- Dihydrogen as a Fuel
S-block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals)
- Group 1 Elements - Alkali Metals
- General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals
- Anomalous Properties of Lithium
- Some Important Compounds of Sodium
- Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium
- Group 2 Elements - Alkaline Earth Metals
- General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals
- Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium
- Some Important Compounds of Calcium
- Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium
Some P-block Elements
- Introduction to p-block Elements
- Group 13 Elements - The Boron Family
- Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron
- Some Important Compounds of Boron
- Uses of Boron and Aluminium and Their Compounds
- Group 14 Elements - The Carbon Family
- Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon
- Allotropes of Carbon - Diamond
- Allotropes of Carbon - Graphite
- Allotropes of Carbon - Fullerenes
- Allotropes of Carbon - Uses of Carbon
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Monoxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Dioxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicon Dioxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicones
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicates
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Zeolites
Environmental Chemistry
- Environmental Pollution - Introduction
- Tropospheric Pollution - Gaseous Air Pollutants
- Tropospheric Pollution - Particulate Pollutants
- Stratospheric Pollution
- Water Pollution and Its Causes
- International Standards for Drinking Water
- Soil Pollution - Pesticides, Herbicides
- Industrial Waste
- Strategies to Control Environmental Pollution
- Green Chemistry - Introduction
- Green Chemistry in Day-to-day Life

Introduction
Acid
Base
Salt

Introduction:

Acids, bases, and salts are fundamental chemical compounds that play a crucial role in both natural and artificial processes. These compounds are widely present in our surroundings, including in everyday substances such as food and household items. For example, acetic acid in vinegar is commonly used as a food preservative, while citric acid is found in citrus fruits. Beyond their presence in food, these compounds have extensive applications in industries, manufacturing, scientific research, and various processing plants, making them indispensable to modern life.

Acid:

Acids are chemical substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water. They are found naturally in foods like citrus fruits and vinegar and are widely used in industries.

Classification:

Natural (Organic Acids): Found in nature, e.g., acetic acid (vinegar) and citric acid (fruits).
Mineral Acids (Inorganic Acids): Synthetic or derived from minerals, e.g., hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄).

Properties:

Sour taste, with a burning or tingling sensation.
React with bases to form salt and water (neutralisation).
pH less than 7.

Applications: Used in industries for fertilisers, dyes, cleaning, and manufacturing.

Types of Acids:

1. Based on Occurrence

Natural Acids: Derived from plants or animals, e.g., acetic acid (CH₃COOH).
Mineral Acids: Man-made or extracted from minerals, e.g., hydrochloric acid (HCl).

2. Based on Concentration:

Strong Acids: Fully ionise in water, e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄.
Weak Acids: Partially ionise in water, e.g., acetic acid (CH₃COOH).

Acids are essential in both natural and industrial processes, making them a crucial part of chemical applications.

Base:

Bases are chemical substances that react with acids to produce salts and release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water. Common examples include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).

Classification of Bases

1. Based on Acidity (Number of Hydroxyl Ions):

Monoacidic Bases: Contain one hydroxyl ion, e.g., NaOH, KOH.
Diacidic Bases: Contain two hydroxyl ions, e.g., Ca(OH)₂, Mg(OH)₂.
Triacidic Bases: Contain three hydroxyl ions, e.g., Al(OH)₃, Fe(OH)₃.

2. Based on Concentration (In Solution):

Concentrated Bases: High concentration of base in the solution, e.g., concentrated NaOH.
Diluted Bases: Low concentration of base in the solution, e.g., dilute KOH.

3. Based on Degree of Ionisation (Strength):

Strong Bases: Fully dissociate in water, releasing a large number of OH⁻ ions, e.g., NaOH, KOH.
Weak Bases: Partially dissociate in water, releasing fewer OH⁻ ions, e.g., NH₄OH.

Bases are essential in various chemical processes, from neutralisation reactions to industrial and laboratory applications.

Salt:

Salts are ionic compounds formed when acids and bases neutralise each other. They are electrically neutral and widely found in various forms, with sodium chloride (table salt) being the most common example.

Types of Salts

1. Acidic Salts: Acidic salts are formed by the partial neutralisation of strong acids and weak bases. It contains ionisable H⁺ ions in solution. For example, sodium bisulfate (NaHSO₄) and ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl).

2. Basic (Alkali) Salts: Basic salts are produced by the partial neutralisation of strong bases and weak acids. And yield a basic solution upon hydrolysis. For example, sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and sodium acetate (CH₃COONa).

3. Neutral Salts: Neutral salts result from the complete reaction of strong acids with strong bases. It has a neutral pH (7). For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl).

4. Other Types:

Double Salts: Contain more than one type of cation or anion, e.g., potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC₄H₄O₆·4H₂O).
Mixed Salts: Formed by combining two salts with a common ion, e.g., bleaching powder (CaOCl₂).

Salts are crucial in chemical, biological, and industrial processes due to their diverse properties and applications.

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Concept of Acid, Base, and Salt

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Topics

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Structure of Atom

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

States of Matter:- Gases and Liquids

Chemical Thermodynamics

Equilibrium

Redox Reactions

Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques

Hydrocarbons

Hydrogen

S-block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals)

Some P-block Elements

Environmental Chemistry

Introduction:

Acid:

Base:

Salt:

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