Biology HSC Science (General) 12th Standard Board Exam Maharashtra State Board Syllabus 2025-26

• Introduction
• Reproduction in Plants
• Importance of Variation
• Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals
• Organisms Create Copies of Themselves

Mode of Reproduction in Plant:

1. Asexual reproduction

2. Sexual reproduction

• Asexual reproduction in plant

• Different modes of asexual reproduction in plant

1. Fragmentation
2. Budding
3. Spore formation
4. Binary fission
5. Conidia formation
6. Gemma formation

• Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Stages of Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
  (i) Pre-fertilisation events
  (ii) Double fertilisation
  (iii) Post-fertilisation events

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Stamen (Male Reproductive Unit)

1. Stamen
2. Anther development
3. Structure of Anther
4. T. S. of Anther

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Microsporangium

1. Microsporangium
2. Structure of microspore
3. Microsporogenesis

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Pollen Grain

1. Pollen grain
2. Male gametophyte
3. Development of Male Gametophyte
4. Pollen product
5. Pollen viability
6. Pollen allergy

• Pistil (female Reproductive Unit)
• Ovule
• Forms of ovule

1. Orthotropous ovule
2. Anatropous ovule
3. Hemi-anatropous ovule
4. Campylotropous ovule
5. Amphitropous ovule
6. Circinotropous ovule

• Pre-fertilization: Megasporangium

1. Megasporangium
2. Megasporogenesis

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Formation of Embryo Sac

1. Formation of Embryo sac
2. Female gametophyte
3. Development of Female Gametophyte

• Abiotic Agents
• Biotic Agents

• Double Fertilization 
• Significance of Double Fertilization 
• Syngamy and Triple Fusion

• Embryogenesis
• Development of Dicot Embryo as in Capsella
• Development of Monocot (grass) Embryo 

• Process of Seed and Fruit Development  
• Significance of seed and fruit formation
• Dormancy

• Apomixis
• Classification of apomixis

1. Recurrent apomixis
2. Non-recurrent apomixis
3. Adventive apomixis

• Introduction
• Reproduction in Plants
• Importance of Variation
• Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals
• Organisms Create Copies of Themselves

• Mode of Reproduction in Animal:

1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

• Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
• Phases menstrual cycle

1. Menstrual phase
2. Follicular or proliferative phase
3. Ovulatory phase
4. Luteal or secretory phase

• Gametogenesis

1. Spermatogenesis
2. Structure of human spermatozoan
3. Oogenesis
4. Structure of ovum

• Fertilization
• Mechanism of fertilization
• Effect of fertilization
• Significance of fertilization
• Sex determination

• Cleavage
• Blastulation

• Implantation in Humans
• Implantation duration and process
• Implantation bleeding

• First Trimester
• Second Trimester
• Third (final) Trimester

• Placenta 
• Functions of Placenta

• Parturition (Birth) in Human

1. Dilation stage
2. Expulsion stage
3. After birth

• Twins - Fraternal and identical
• More than two - The triplets, Quadruplets, etc
• Test tube babies
• Two unlucky conjoined twins
• Siamese twins - A developmental abnormality

• Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) Programme
  - Goals of RCH Programmes

• Population stabilisation and birth control
• Contraceptive methods

1. Temporary method:
   a. Natural method/ Safe period / Rhythm method
   b. Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal
   c. Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
   d. Chemical means (spermicides)
   e. Mechanical means / Barrier methods
   f. Physiological (Oral) Devices
2. Permanent Methods

• Introduction
• Some Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• Other diseases of the Reproductive Tract

• IVF-ET: in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. 
• ICSI: Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection  
• GIFT: Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer 
• ZIFT: Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer  
• IUT: Intra-Uterine Transfer
• IUI: Intra-Uterine insemination
• Adoption

• Genes
• Genetic
• Genetic Terminology

1. Character
2. Trait
3. Factor
4. Gene
5. Alleles or Allelomorphs
6. Dominant
7. Recessive
8. Phenotype
9. Genotype
10. Homozygous (pure)
11. Heterozygous
12. Pure line 
13. Monohybrid
14. F₁ generation
15. F₂ generation
16. Punnett square/ Checkerboard
17. Homologous Chromosomes 
18. Back cross
19. Test cross
20. Phenotypic ratio
21. Genotypic ratio
22. Monohybrid cross
23. Dihybrid cross

• Mendel’s Principles of Heredity
• Mendelian inheritance - Mendel’s Laws of Heredity

• Back cross 
• Test cross 

• Types of gene interaction:

1. Intragenic interactions
2. Intergenic (non-allelic) interactions

1. Incomplete dominance
2. Co-dominance
3. Multiple alleles
4. Pleiotropy

• Discovery of Chromosomes
• Chromosomes
• Variation in Chromosome Number (ploidy)
• Structure of a Chromosome

• Linkage
• Types of linkage: Complete linkage and Incomplete linkage
• Linkage Groups
• Sex-linkage: Complete sex linkage and Incomplete sex linkage
• Crossing Over
• Morgan’s Experiments showing linkage and crossing over

• Autosomal Inheritance

1. Widow’s peak
2. Phenylketonuria (PKU)

• X-linked (sex-linked) genes
• Y-linked (Holandric) genes

1. Colour blindness
2. Haemophilia (Bleeder’s disease)

 Sex Determination

1. Sex Determination in human beings 
2. Sex Determination in birds 
3. Sex Determination in honey bees  

• Genetic Disorders
• Examples of Genetic Disorders

• The Discovery of DNA
• Introduction of DNA
• Composition of DNA
• Genes: The Functional Units of Heredity
• Seeds of Technology

• Packaging in Prokaryotes
• Packaging in Eukaryotes

• Functions of DNA:

1. Heterocatalytic function
2. Autocatalytic function

Process of semicoservative replication 

• Activation of Nucleotides 
• Point of Origin or Initiation point 
• Unwinding of DNA molecule 
• Replicating fork 
• Synthesis of new strands 
• Leading and Lagging strand 
• Formation of daughter DNA molecules

• Protein synthesis
• Process of protein synthesis: Transcription and Translation
• Central Dogma

• Operon
• Lactose or lac operon
• Lac operon consists of the following components:

1. Regulator gene (repressor gene) 
2. Promoter gene
3. Operator gene
4. Structural genes
5. Inducer

• Role of lactose

• Genomics
• Classification of Genomics

1. Structural genomics
2. Functional genomics

• Application of genomics

• Human Genome Project
• Goals of HGP
• Methodologies
• Salient Features of Human Genome
• Applications and Future Challenges

• DNA Fingerprinting Technique
• Steps involved in DNA finger printing
• Application of DNA fingerprinting

• Characteristics of Genetic code 
• Mutations and Genetic Code 

• Origin of life
• Theories of origin of life

1. Big Bang Theory
2. Theory of Panspermia
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis
4. Theory of Biogenesis
5. Theory of Chemical Origin
6. Urey and Miller's experiment

• Chemical Evolution of Life (Self-assembly Theory of the Origin of Life)

1. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere
2. Formation of ammonia, water, and methane
3. Formation of simple organic molecules
4. Formation of complex organic molecules
5. Formation of Nucleic acids
6. Formation of Protobionts or Procells
7. Formation of first cell
   - Urey and Miller’s Experiment
   - RNA World Hypothesis

• Evidence for Biological evolution:

1. Paleontological evidence
2. Evidence from Morphological and anatomical evidence
3. Embryological evidence
4. Molecular evidence
5. Evolution by natural selection (Industrial melanism)
6. Evolution by anthropogenic

• Speciation
• Modes to form New species

1. Intraspecific Speciation: Allopatric speciation and Sympatric speciation
2. Interspecific Speciation: Hybridisation

• Introduction
• Activity 1
• Activity 2
• Activity 3

• Root
• Root Hair
• Structure of root hair

• Water Potential (ψ)
• Factors affecting water absorption

• Pathway of water across the root
• Two ways of Pathway of water

1. Apoplast pathway
2. Symplast pathway: Vacuolar and Transmembrane

1. Root Pressure Theory (Vital Theory)
2. Capillarity theory (physical force theory)
3. Cohesion-tension theory (Transpiration pull theory)
4. Adhesion

• Path of translocation

1. Vertical translocation 
2. Lateral translocation

• Mechanism of sugar transport through phloem

• Types of Transpiration

1. Stomatal Transpiration
2. Cuticular transpiration
3. Lenticular transpiration

• Opening and Closing of Stoma

• Plant Growth
• Aspect of growth:

1. Quantitative aspect of growth
2. Qualitative aspect of growth

• Meristems:

1. Apical meristem
2. Intercalary meristem
3. Lateral meristem

• Phases of Plant Growth

1. Phase of cell division/ formation (Meristematic Phase)
2. Phase of cell enlargement/ elongation (Elongation Phase)
3. Phase of Cell maturation/ differentiation (Maturation Phase)

• Growth Rates
  1) Arithmetic growth
  2) Geometric growth

• Growth curve:
  a) Lag Phase
  b) Log Phase
  c) Stationary Phase

• Plant Hormones
• Types of Plant Hormones

• Auxins
• Physiological effects and applications of auxin

• Gibberellins
• Physiological effects and application of Gibberellins

• Cytokinin
• Physiological effects and applications of cytokinin

• Ethylene
• Physiological effects and application of ethylene

• Abscisic Acid
• Physiological effects and application of ABA

• Photoperiodism

1. Short Day Plants (SDP)
2. Long Day Plants (LDP)
3. Day Neutral Plants (DNP)

• Phytochrome

• Vernalization
• Advantages of vernalization

• Sources of minerals
• Classification of minerals on the basis of their quality requirement:

1. Essential minerals 
2. Non-essential minerals 

• Classification of minerals on the Basis of their quantity requirement:

1. Microelement minerals
2. Macroelement minerals

• Symptoms of Mineral deficiency in plants
• Toxicity of Micronutrients
• Minerals salt absorption: Passive Absorption and Donnan equilibrium

• Introduction to Respiration
• Types of Respiration

• Gaseous exchange in plants 
• Respiration in Animals 

• Respiratory System
• Exchange of Gases in Lungs
• Significance of Respiration

• Mechanism of Respiration
• Steps of Respiration

• Neural control
  1) Respiratory rhythm centre
  2) Pneumotaxic centre
• Chemical Control
  1) Chemosensitive Area
  2) Chemoreceptors

Disorders of the respiratory system

• Emphysema
• Chronic bronchitis
• Acute bronchitis
• Sinusitis
• Laryngitis
• Pneumonia
• Asthma
• Occupational Respiratory Disorderssilicosis, asbestosis

• Circulation
• Blood vascular system
• Types of blood vascular system

1. Open circulation
2. Closed circulation

• Types of Closed Circulation:

1. Single circulation
2. Double circulation
   - Systemic circulation
   - Pulmonary circulation
   - Coronary circulation

• Hepatic Portal System

• Blood Circulatory System
• Blood vascular system
• Blood Composition
• Blood Coagulation (Clotting)

• Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
• Blood clotting in a test tube

• Structure of the Heart
• Layers of the Heart Wall
• Chambers of the Heart
• Valves of the Heart
• Pathway of Blood through the Heart

• Cardiac Cycle
• Atrial systole (AS)
• Ventricular systole (VS)
• Cardiac output (CO)

• Blood Vessels: Structure and Functions
• Capillaries

• Lymph and Lymphatic System
• Composition of Lymph
• Functions of Lymph

Internal respiration

• Transport of oxygen
• Transport of CO₂

• External respiration / Exchange of gases at the alveolar level
• Pulmonary volumes and capacities

Cellular Respiration

• Oxidation
• Phosphorylation

• Introduction
• Components of Nervous System
• Neuron
• Need of Nervous System

• Central Nervous System
• Different regions of Brain and its functions

Forebrain: 

1. Olfactory lobes
2. Cerebrum
3. Diencephalon

• Spinal Cord 
• T. S. of spinal cord
• Functions of the spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System
• Types of PNS

• Sensory Receptor
• Classification of receptors

1. Exteroceptors: Receive external stimuli
2. Interoceptors : Receive stimuli coming from within the body
   
   

• Structure and Components
• Photoreceptors and Eye Muscles

• Structure of Human Ear
• Function of Human Ear

• Psychological disorders
• Parkinson's disease
• Alzheimer’s disease

Chemical Coordination

1. Autocrine 
2. Paracrine 
3. Endocrine 
4. Pheromone 

Human Endocrine System

• Properties of Hormones 
• Mechanism of hormone action 

• Synapse
• Properties of nerve fibres

Types of synapses

1. Electrical synapse
2. Chemical synapse

Generation of nerve impulse

1. Depolarization
2. Re-polarization

• Reflex Action
• Types of Reflex actions

• Autonomic Nervous System
• Reflex Action

• Immune System
• Cells of Immune System

1. Lymphocytes
   - Mechanism of response of T-lymphocytes to antigens
   - Mechanism of action of B-lymphocytes to antigens
2. Antigen Presenting cells

• Types of Immunity

1. Innate immunity or Inborn immunity

1. Epithelial surface
2. Antimicrobial substances in blood and
   tissues
3. Cellular factors in innate immunity
4. Fever
5. Acute phase proteins (APPs)

2. Acquired immunity

1. Active immunity

1. Natural Acquired Active immunity
2. Artificial Acquired Active immunity

      II. Passive immunity

1. Natural Acquired Passive immunity
2. Artificially Acquired Passive
   immunity

• Vaccination
• Immunization

• Antibody
• Immunoglobulins
• Structure of Antibody
• Formation of antigen-antibody complex
• Antigen on Blood Cells
• ABO Blood Groups
• Rh factor

• Introduction
• Identification of disease

• Vector
• Vector Borne Diseases: Mosquitoes, Cockroaches and Rats

1. Malaria
2. Elephantiasis (filariasis)
3. Yellow fever
4. Dengue

• Control of mosquitoes:

1. Spraying
2. Elimination of breeding places
3. Spraying on stagnant water
4. Biological control

• Introduction of Cancer
• Differences between normal cell and cancer cell
• Causes of cancer
• Cancer detection and diagnosis
• Treatment of cancer
• Scope of Immunology

• Adolescence
• Stages of Adolescence
• Physical changes of adolescence
• Mental Health and Adolesence

• Addiction
• Causes of substances abuse during Adolescence
• Methods /measures to control drug abuse

• Drugs, Tobacco, and Alcohol Use- An Invitation to Death
• Effects of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
• Prevention and Control of Drug Abuse

Plant breeding 

Plant breeding

• Hybridization and its technique
  Steps of Hybridization technique
  Indian Hybrid Crops 
• Mutation Breeding

         -Plant Breeding for Developing a Resistance to Insect Pest

• Definition
• Introduction
• Tissue Culture Stages
• Processes in Tissue Culture

• Single cell protein (SCP)
• Advantages of Single-Cell Protein

• Biofortification
• Some examples of biofortification

• Agro-Complementary Occupations
• Animal Husbandry

• Proper Care for Optimal Yield
• Dairy Farm Management
• Protecting the Cattle from Diseases
• Livestock Management: Sheep, Goats, and Horses

• Poultry Farm Management
• Components of Poultry Farm Management
• Egg and Broiler Production
• Poultry Disease

• Introduction
• The Life Cycle of Silk Worm

Microbes in human welfare

• Microbes in food preparation

1. Dosa, Dhokla and Idli
2. Microbes as the Source of Food
3. Dairy Products

Microbes in Industrial Production

1. Production of Alcoholic Beverages 
2. Production of organic acids 
3. Production of vitamins 
4. Production of Antibiotics 
5. Production of Enzymes 
6. Gibberellin production 

Composition of Sewage

Microorganisms in Sewage

Sewage treatment process includes four basic steps as follows:

1. Preliminary Treatment
2. Primary treatment (physical treatment)
3. Secondary treatment (biological treatment)
4. Tertiary treatment

Microbes in Energy Generation

• Biogas Production

1. Hydrolysis or solublization
2. Acidogenesis
3. Methanogenesis

• Microbes as Biocontrol Agents
• Examples of Microbial bio-control

• Biofertilizers
• Types of Biofertilizers
• Biofertilizer microorganisms
• Sources of Biofertilizers 
  a) Bacteria as a nitrogen fixer
  b) Fungi
  c) Cyanobacteria

• Process and Principles of Biotechnology
• Technique of gene cloning and rDNA technology 

1. Isolation of DNA (gene) from the donor organism
2. Insertion of a desired foreign gene into a cloning vector (vehicle DNA)
3. Transfer of rDNA into the suitable competent host or cloning organism
4. Selection of the transformed host cell
5.  Multiplication of transformed host cell
6.  Expression of the gene to obtain the desired product

1. Healthcare Biotechnology 
2. Agriculture 
3. Gene therapy 
4. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) 

Bioethics

• Herbicide Use and Resistance
• Effects on Untargeted Species

• Biopatent
• Biopiracy
• Examples of Biopiracy

Effects of Biotechnology on Human Health

• Allergies
• Long-Term Effects
• New Proteins
• Food Additives

• Habitat
• Types of Habitats

1. Aquatic habitat: Fresh water Habitat and Marine water habitat
2. Terrestrial habitat: Forest habitat, Grassland habitat, and Desert habitat

• Niche
• Types of niches

1. Spatial or habitat niche
2. Trophic niche
3. Multidimensional or hypervolume niche

• Differences between Habitat and Niche

Population

•  Natality

1. Absolute Natality
2. Realized Natality

•  Mortality

1. Absolute Mortality
2. Realized Mortality

• Sex ratio
• Age distribution and Age pyramid
• Population Growth 

Population Interactions

1. Predation (adaptations in organisms to avoid predation)
2. Competition (Interspecific, interference, Competitive exclusion, Competitive release, Gause's Competitive Exclusion Principle)
3. Parasitism 
   ⇒ Types of parasites: Ectoparasites, Endoparasites, Brood parasitism
4. Commensalism
5. Mutualism
6. Amensalism

• Ecosystem
• Basic categories of ecosystem
  1) Terrestrial
  2) Aquatic

• Introduction
• Trophic Levels of The Ecosystem

• Introduction
• Diversity in Animal Food
• Reproduction in Animals
• Classification of Animals Based on Habitat

• First Trophic level (Photoautotrophs)
• Second trophic level (Herbivores)
• Third trophic level (Carnivores) 
• Fourth Trophic level (Top carnivore) 

• Introduction of Food Chain
• Advantages of Food Chain

• Introduction of Food Web
• Advantages of Food Web

• Ecological Pyramids

1. Pyramid of biomass 
2. Pyramid of numbers 
3. Pyramid of energy 

• Limitations of ecological pyramids

• Nutrient Cycles
• Types of Nutrient cycles

Ecological succession

• Classification of ecological succession
  (i) Primary Succession
  (ii) Secondary Succession
• Succession of Plants
• Kinds of plant succession
  (i) Hydrarch Succession
  (ii) Xerarch Succession

Ecological services

• Categories of ecosystem services

1. Supporting services
2. Provisioning services
3. Regulating services
4. Cultural services

Following are the main ecological services: 

• Carbon fixation 
• Oxygen release 
• Pollination 

Levels of Biodiversity

• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecological (Ecosystem) diversity

Patterns of Biodiversity

• Latitudinal and altitudinal gradients
• Species-Area relationships

• Loss of Biodiversity
• Causes of Biodiversity losses
  (i) Habitat loss and fragmentation
  (ii) Overexploitation
  (iii) Alien species invasions
  (iv) Co-extinctions

• Water Pollution
• Types of Water Pollutants
• Causes of Water Pollution
• Reasons of Water Pollution

• Green House Effect
• Green House gases

• Global Warming
• Causes of Global warming
• Effect of Global Warming

• Depletion of Ozone Layer
• Chemicals responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer

Why to conserve Diversity?

1. Narrowly utilitarian reasons
2. Broadly utilitarian reasons
3. Ethical reasons

How do we conserve biodiversity?

1. In situ conservation
2. Ex situ conservation