NEET (UG) Biology Syllabus: Check the Latest Syllabus

• What is ‘Living’?
• Characteristics of living organisms

1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Cellular structure
4. Response to stimuli (Consciousness)
5. Homeostasis
6. Metabolism

• Difference  between anabolism and catabolism

• Biodiversity
• Identification
• Nomenclature - Binomial Nomenclature
• Classification - Taxonomy and Systematics

• Taxonomical Aids
• Usage of Taxonomical Aids

1. Herbarium
2. Botanical Gardens
3. Biological museums
4. Zoological Parks
5. Key
6. Molecular taxonomy
7. Automated species identification tools

• History of Classification

• Aristotle
• Theophrastus
• John Ray
• Carolus Linnaeus
• Ernst Haeckal
• Herbert F. Copeland
• R.H.Whittaker
• Carl Woese

• Introduction
• Hierarchy Classification
• Five Kingdom Classification

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Kingdom Animalia
• Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia

• Kingdom Animalia
• Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia

• Levels of organisation

• Cellular level of organisation
• Tissue level of organisation
• Organ system level of organisation

• Diploblastic and Triploblastic organisation
• Patterns of symmetry
• Coelom
• Segmentation and Notochord

• Parazoa
• Eumetazoa

1. Radiata
2. Bilateria

• Division 1: Protostomia
• Division 2: Deuterostomia 

• Non Chordates (Invertebrata)
• Chordates 

• Chordata: Prochordata
• Chordata: Vertebrata

• Comparison of chordates and non-chordates

• Plant morphology
• Classification of plant morphology

1. Vegetative morphology
   Component of vegetative morphology
   (a) Habit
   (b) Plant habitat
   (c) Life Span
2. Reproductive Morphology

• Parts of a flowering plant

• Root system
• Characteristic of the root system
• Type of Root:
  1) Primary root
  2) Secondary root
• Regions of root
  1) Meristematic Zone
  2) Zone of Elongation
  3) Zone of Maturation
• Types of the root system
  1) Tap root system
  2) Fibrous root system
  3) Adventitious root system
• Functions of root
  1) Primary function
  2) Secondary function
• Modifications of root

• The Leaf
• Characteristics of leaf
• Functions of the leaf -
  1) Primary functions
  2) Secondary functions
• Parts of the leaf -
  1) Leaf base (hypopodium)
  2) Petiole (stipe or mesopodium)
  3) Lamina (Leaf blade)
• Venation -
  1) Reticulate venation
  2) Parallel venation
• Phyllotaxy -
  1) Alternate Phyllotaxy
  2) Opposite Phyllotaxy
  3) Ternate phyllotaxy
  4) Whorled (verticillate) type of phyllotaxy
• Leaf mosaic
• Types of Leaves -
  1) Simple leaf
  2) Compound leaf - Pinnately and palmately compound leaf
• Modifications of Leaves
  1) Leaf tendrils
  2) Leaf hooks
  3) Leaf Spines and Prickles
  4) Storage Leaves
  5) Phyllode
  6) Pitcher
  7) Bladder
  8) Floral leaves
• Leaf duration - Caducuous (Fagacious), Deciduous, Evergreen and Marcescent

• The steam
• Characteristic features of the stem
• Functions of the stem
  (i) Primary functions
  (ii) Secondary functions
• Buds
• Types of Stem - Excurrent, Decurrent, Caudex, and Culm
• Modification of Stem
  1) Aerial modification of stem
  2) Subaerial stem modifications
  3) Underground stem modifications
  4) Stem Branching

• Inflorescence
• Types of Inflorescence
  1) Based On Position - Terminal, Auxillary, and Cauliflorous
  2) Based on branching pattern and other characters -Indeterminate (Racemose), Determinate (Cymose), Mixed inflorescence and Special inflorescence
• Racemose Inflorescence
  1) Main axis elongated - Simple raceme, Spike, Spikelet, Catkin, Spadix and Pancile
  2) Main axis shortened - Corymb, Umbel
  3) Main axis flattened - Head, 
• Cymose inflorescence - 
  1) Simple cyme (solitary)
  2) Monochasial Cyme (uniparous) - Helicoid and Scorpioid
  3) Simple dichasium (Biparous)
  4) Compound dichasium:
  5) Polychasial Cyme (multiparous)
• Mixed Inflorescence
  1) Thyrsus
  2) Verticillaster
• Special Inflorescence
  1) Cyathium
  2) Hypanthodium
  3) Coenanthium

• Flower
• Whorls of flower - Complete and Incomplete
• Flower sex 
  1) Perfect or bisexual
  2) Imperfect or unisexual: Staminate and Pistillate flowers
• Plant sex
  1) Hermaphroditic
  2) Monoecious
  3) Dioecious
  4) Polygamous
• Flower symmetry
  1) Actinomorphic (or) radial or polysymmetric
  2) Zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry) or monosymmetric
  3) Asymmetric (amorphic)
• Types of Flower
  1) Types of flower depending upon the number of floral appendages
  i) Trimerous
  ii) Tetramerous
  iii) Pentamerous
  2) Types of flowers depending on presence of bracts
  i) Bracteate
  ii) Ebracteate
  3) Types of flower based on the position of calyx, corolla and androecium in respect of the ovary on thalamus
  i) Hypogynous
  ii) Perigynous
  iii) Epigynous

• The Fruits - Pomology
• Structure of Fruit - Pericarp, epicarp, mesocarp, endocarp.
• Types of Fruits
  1) Simple fruits
  a) Fleshy Fruit
  b) Dry Fruit
  2) Aggregate Fruit
  3) Multiple Fruit
• Parts of a typical fruit
  a) Pericarp
  b) Seeds
  c) Drupe
• Function of Fruits

• The seed
• Types of seed
  A) Based on the number of cotyledons two types of seeds are recognized.
  (i) Dicotyledonous seed
  (ii) Monocotyledonous seed
  B) Based on the presence or absence of the endosperm the seed is of two types. 
  (i) Albuminous or Endospermous seed
  (ii) Ex-albuminous or non- endospermous seed
• Significance of Seeds

Anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seed (to be dealt along with the relevant experiment of the Practical Syllabus).

• Introduction
• Differences Between Plant and Animal Tissues

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Introduction
• Types of Meristematic Tissue

1. Epidermal tissue system
2. Ground tissue system
3. Vascular tissue system

• Introduction to Tissue System, Types and Characteristics of tissue System

• Introduction
• Differences Between Plant and Animal Tissues

• Earthworms
• Classification of earthworm
• Economic importance of earthworm

• Cockroach - Periplaneta americana
• Biological classification of cockroach
• Various kinds of cockroaches

• Frog - Rana hexadactyla
• Biological classification of frog
• Differences between a Frog and Toad
• Economic importance of frog

• The Fundamental Unit of Life: Cell
• Discovery of Cells

• Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life
• Exception to Cell Theory 
• Protoplasm Theory
• Cell sizes and shapes

• Cell Numbers
• Cell Size
• Smallness of Cells: A Greater Efficiency
• Cell Shapes: To suit Functional Requirement

• Biomolecules
• Importance of biomolecules

• The acid-soluble pool (Filtrate)
• Types of Biomolecules

1. Micromolecules
2. Macromolecules

• Proteins
• Based on our nutritional requirements, amino acids are classified as:
  1) Non-essential amino acids 
  2) Essential amino acids
• Functions of proteins
• Bonding and protein structure
  1) Peptide bond of proteins or polypeptides
• Classification of proteins
  1) Primary (Basic) structures
  2) Secondary structure
  3) Tertiary structure
  4) Quaternary structure
• Amino acids

Structure and Function of Proteins

amino acids – (structure: glycine, alanine, serine)

amino acids as zwitter-ion

examples of acidic, basic, neutral, sulphur containing amino acids

essential and nonessential amino acids

levels of protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary)

functions of proteins

1. Purely proteinaceous enzymes
2. Conjugated enzymes

• Carbohydrates
• Classification of carbohydrates

classification, structure and functions of fats and oils

• Phases of cell cycle

1. Interphase
   1) G₁ phase (Gap 1): Quiescent stage or G₀ Phase
   2) S phase (Synthesis)
   3) G₂ phase (Gap 2)
2. Mitosis or M-phase

• Meiosis
• Stages of Meiosis

1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II

• Meiosis I or reduction division
• Stages of Meiosis: Interphase and Karyokinesis
  i) Interphase
  ii) Karyokinesis
  a) Prophase I: Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene, Diakinesis
  b) Metaphase I
  c) Anaphase I
  d) Telophase I
• Cytokinesis
• Interkinesis

• Meiosis II
• Phases of Meiosis II

1. Karyokinesis
   a) Prophase II
   b) Metaphase II
   c) Anaphase II
   d) Telophase II
2. Cytokinesis II

• Water Potential (ψ)
• Factors affecting water absorption

• Uptake of mineral ions
• Active absorption
• Translocation of Mineral Ions

• Opening and Closing of Stoma

• Sources of minerals
• Classification of minerals on the basis of their quality requirement:

1. Essential minerals 
2. Non-essential minerals 

• Classification of minerals on the Basis of their quantity requirement:

1. Microelement minerals
2. Macroelement minerals

• Symptoms of Mineral deficiency in plants
• Toxicity of Micronutrients
• Minerals salt absorption: Passive Absorption and Donnan equilibrium

• Hydroponics

• Criteria for Essentiality
• Two types of essential minerals based on their quantitative requirements
  1) Macronutrients
  2) Micronutrients (Trace Elements)

• Experiment to prove that light is essential for photosynthesis
• Half leaf experiment to prove that CO₂ is essential for photosynthesis

• Priestley's experiment

• Light Reactions
• Dark Reaction

• difference between chlorophyll ‘a’&‘b’, carotenoids and xanthophyll
• Pigments Involved in Photosynthesis (Elementary Idea)

• Photoexcitation of PS-II
• Electron transport system
• Photoexcitation of PS-I
• The Z-Scheme

• Photophosphorylation

1. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
2. Cyclic Photophosphorylation

• C₄ Plants
• Characteristics of C₄ plants
• Kranz Anatomy
• The C₄ Pathway
• Diagramatic representation of the Hatch and Slack pathway

• Blackman - Law of limiting factors
• Factors affecting photosynthesis

1. External Factors:
   1) Availability of sunlight
   2) Temperature
   3) Water
   4) Humidity
   5) CO₂ Concentration [atmospheric]
   6) O₂ availability
2. Internal Factors:
   1) Number of leaves
   2) Size of leaves
   3) Leaf age
   4) Orientation of leaves
   5) Mesophyll cells and chloroplasts
   6) Internal CO₂ concentration
   7) Anatomy of leaf

• Cellular respiration
• Types of cellular respiration

1. Aerobic Respiration
2. Anaerobic Respiration

• Aerobic respiration in plant/animal
• Anaerobic respiration in plant/animal
• Differences in anaerobic respiration in plants and animals

• Glycolysis
• Glycolysis Pathway

• Fermentation
• Process of Fermentation
• Types of Fermentation

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
2. Alcohol Fermentation
3. Acetic acid Fermentation
4. Butyric acid Fermentation

• Advantages of Fermentation

• TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
• Steps of TCA Cycle

• Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Oxidative Phosphorylation Steps

• Characteristics of Growth in plants:
  1) Indeterminate or continuous growth
  2) Localised growth

• Phases of Plant Growth

1. Phase of cell division/ formation (Meristematic Phase)
2. Phase of cell enlargement/ elongation (Elongation Phase)
3. Phase of Cell maturation/ differentiation (Maturation Phase)

• Growth Rates
  1) Arithmetic growth
  2) Geometric growth

• Sequence of Developmental Processes in a Plant Cell

• Auxins
• Gibberellins
• Cytokinins (Cytos – cell, Kinesis – division)
• Ethylene (Gaseous Phytohormone)
• Abscisic Acid (ABA) (Stress Phyto hormone)

• Photoperiodism

1. Short Day Plants (SDP)
2. Long Day Plants (LDP)
3. Day Neutral Plants (DNP)

• Phytochrome

• Vernalisation
• Kinds of varieties
  1) Spring variety
  2) Winter variety

• Process of Seed and Fruit Development  
• Significance of seed and fruit formation
• Dormancy

• Alimentary canal
• The human alimentary canal consists following parts:

1. Buccal (oral) cavity
   a) Mouth
   b) Teeth - thecodont, Diphyodont, enamel, Types of Teeth: Incisors, Canines, Premolars, Molars, Dental Formula → Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw
   c) Tongue
2. Pharynx
3. Oesophagus (food pipe)
4. Stomach: Cardiac region, Fundic region, Body (Main central region), Pyloric region.
5. Small Intestine: Duodenum, Jejunum, IIleum
6. Large Intestine: Caccum, Colon, Rectum, Anal canal
7. Anus: Wall of Alimentary canal
   i) Serosa
   ii) Muscularis
   iii) Submucosa
   iv) Mucosa

• Digestive Glands

1. Salivary gland:
   a) Parotid gland
   b) Subligual gland
   c) Submaxillary/ Submandibular gland
2. Liver
3. Gall bladder
4. Pancreas

• In Buccal Cavity: Constituents of saliva, Salivary amylase, Lysozyme
• In Stomach:
  a) Gastric glands: Chief/ peptic (zymogen cells), Oxyntic/ parietal cells, Mucus neck cells, Gastric Juice, gastric secretion
• In Small Intestine: Intestinal juice (Succus entericus)
  a) Role of bite in fat digestion
  b) Role of Pancreatic Juice
  ⇒ In carbohydrate digestion
  ⇒ In protein digestion
  ⇒ In fat digestion
  ⇒ In Nucleic acid digestion
  c) Role of intestinal juice indigestion
  ⇒ In carbohydrate digestion
  ⇒ In protein digestion
  ⇒ In fat digestion
  ⇒ In Nucleic acid digestion
• Large Intestine
  ⇒ Neural and hormonal control on digestion process

• Absorption
• It is carried out by various processes:

1. Passive Absorption
   ⇒ Process
   a) Simple diffusion
   b) Osmosis
   c) Facilitated transport
2. Active absorption

• Absorption of fatty acids and glycerol
• Absorption in different parts of the alimentary canal
• Assimilation

• Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine and large intestine

• Disorders of the digestive system

1. Inflammation of the intestinal tract
2. Jaundice
3. Vomiting 
4. Diarrhoea
5. Constipation
6. Indigestion

• PEM (Protein-energy malnutrition)

1. Kwashiorkar
2. Marasmus

• Respiratory Organs in Animals
• gills, lungs

• Respiratory System
• Exchange of Gases in Lungs
• Significance of Respiration

• Mechanism of Respiration
• Steps of Respiration

1. Tidal Volume (TV)
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
4. Residual Volume (RV)
5. Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
6. Expiratory Capacity (EC)
7. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
8. Vital Capacity (VC)
9. Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

• Exchange of Gases - in Humans

• Neural control
  1) Respiratory rhythm centre
  2) Pneumotaxic centre
• Chemical Control
  1) Chemosensitive Area
  2) Chemoreceptors

Disorders of the respiratory system

• Emphysema
• Chronic bronchitis
• Acute bronchitis
• Sinusitis
• Laryngitis
• Pneumonia
• Asthma
• Occupational Respiratory Disorderssilicosis, asbestosis

• Introduction
• Components of Blood

• Human Blood Groups
• Rh Factor
• Blood Donation
• Blood Banks
• Blood Donor
• Blood Recipient

• Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
• Blood clotting in a test tube

• Lymph and Lymphatic System
• Composition of Lymph
• Functions of Lymph

• Blood Circulatory System
• Blood vascular system
• Blood Composition
• Blood Coagulation (Clotting)

• Structure of the Heart
• Layers of the Heart Wall
• Chambers of the Heart
• Valves of the Heart
• Pathway of Blood through the Heart

• Blood Vessels: Structure and Functions
• Capillaries

• Heartbeat Rate
• Heart Sounds
• Pulse
• Pulse Rate

• Types of Closed Circulation:

1. Single circulation
2. Double circulation
   - Systemic circulation
   - Pulmonary circulation
   - Coronary circulation

• Hepatic Portal System

• Disorders of the Circulatory System:

1. Hypertension/ High blood pressure: Normal blood pressure
2. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) or Atherosclerosis
3. Angina / Angina pectoris
4. Heart Failure: Myocardial infarction (Heart failure), Cardiac arrest, Heart attack, Stroke
5. Rheumatoid Heart Disease

• Introduction
• Human Excretory System Organs
• Excretion in Humans
• Mechanism of Excretion in Humans
• Dialysis

• Ultrafiltration
• Reabsorption
• Tubular secretion (Renal Secretion)
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• Collecting duct

• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• Henle’s Loop, Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

• Osmoregulation
• Regulation of Kidney Function

1. Renin-Angiotensin,
2. Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)
3. ADH and Diabetes Inspidus

• Urine

• Excretory role of skin
• Excretory role of lungs
• Excretory role of liver

• Kidney stones
• Uremia
• Nephritis
• Renal Failure
• Diabetes
• Urinary tract infection
• Haemodialysis
• Peritoneal dialysis 
• Kidney transplant
• Renal Calculi
• Glomerulonephritis

• Movements
• Locomotion
• Locomotary movements
• Significance of locomotion

• Types of movement
  1) Amoeboid movement
  2) Ciliary movement
  3) Muscular movement

• Muscles
• Properties of muscles
• Classification of muscles

1. Based on their location
   (i) Skeletal muscles
   (ii) Visceral muscles
   (iii) Cardiac muscles
2. Based on their appearance
   (i) Striated muscles
   (ii) Smooth muscles
3. Based on nature
   (i) Voluntary muscles
   (ii) Involuntary muscles

• Structure of Contractile Proteins

1. Actin filament
2. Myosin filament

• Mechanism of muscle contraction
• Steps of muscle contraction

• Skeletal System and Its Functions

• Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System -

1. Myasthenia gravis
2. Tetany
3. Muscular dystrophy
4. Arthritis
5. Osteoporosis
6. Gout

• Introduction
• Components of Nervous System
• Neuron
• Need of Nervous System

• The major division of The Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• Somatic Nervous System
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Components of the nervous system at a glance

• Central Nervous System
• Different regions of Brain and its functions

Forebrain: 

1. Olfactory lobes
2. Cerebrum
3. Diencephalon

• Spinal Cord 
• T. S. of spinal cord
• Functions of the spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System
• Types of PNS

• Reflexes
• Types of actions

1. Voluntary actions 
2. Involuntary actions

• Various terms associated with reflex arc:

1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Central nervous system
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector

• Sense Organs (Receptors)
• Olfactory receptors
• Gustatory receptors
• Classification of Receptors
  (i) Thermoreceptors
  (ii) Tactile receptors / Tangoreceptors
  (iii) Chemoreceptors
  (iv) Phonoreceptors
  (v) Statoreceptors
  (vi) Photoreceptors
  (vii) Pain receptors / Nociceptors
  (viii) Proprioceptors

• Structure and Components
• Photoreceptors and Eye Muscles

• Image Formation and Light Control
• Vision Range and Optical Properties

• Structure of Human Ear
• Function of Human Ear

• Hormones are also secreted by some tissues which are not endocrine glands:
  1) Heart
  2) Kidney
  3) Gastro-intestinal tract: Gastrin, Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK), Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

• Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Hormones and their types
• Target cells have specific receptors

• Types of effects of hormones regulate metabolism and body functions
  1) Permissive effect
  2) Synergistic effect
  3) Antagonistic effect

• Gigantism
• Acromegaly
• Pituitary dwarfism
• Diabetes insipidus
• Graves' disease (Exophthalmic goiter)
• Cretinism
• Goitre
• Addison's disease
• Diabetes mellitus

• Definition of Life Span
• Characteristics of the life span of Organisms
• Life span development

• Maximum life span of organisms
• Approximate life spans of some organisms

• Definition and Meaning of Reproduction: 
• Purpose of Reproduction
• Basic Features of Reproduction: 
• Factors Responsible for Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction in plant

• Different modes of asexual reproduction in plant

1. Fragmentation
2. Budding
3. Spore formation
4. Binary fission
5. Conidia formation
6. Gemma formation

• Different Phases in Sexual Reproduction in Plant
• Different Phases in Sexual Reproduction in animals

• Parthenogenesis
• Types of parthenogenesis

1. Natural Parthenogenesis
2. Artificial parthenogenesis

• Flower
• Significance of flower

• Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Stages of Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
  (i) Pre-fertilisation events
  (ii) Double fertilisation
  (iii) Post-fertilisation events

• Abiotic Agents
• Biotic Agents

• Double Fertilization 
• Significance of Double Fertilization 
• Syngamy and Triple Fusion

• Embryogenesis
• Development of Dicot Embryo as in Capsella
• Development of Monocot (grass) Embryo 

• Apomixis
• Classification of apomixis

1. Recurrent apomixis
2. Non-recurrent apomixis
3. Adventive apomixis

• Gametogenesis

1. Spermatogenesis
2. Structure of human spermatozoan
3. Oogenesis
4. Structure of ovum

• Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
• Phases menstrual cycle

1. Menstrual phase
2. Follicular or proliferative phase
3. Ovulatory phase
4. Luteal or secretory phase

• Menstrual disorders
• Menstrual hygiene
• Disposal of Napkins

• Fertilization
• Mechanism of fertilization
• Effect of fertilization
• Significance of fertilization
• Sex determination

• Cleavage
• Blastulation

• Implantation in Humans
• Implantation duration and process
• Implantation bleeding

• Gastrulation
• Extra embryonic membranes
• Placenta
• Changes in embryo during pregnancy

• Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) Programme
  - Goals of RCH Programmes

• Population Explosion
• Reasons for population explosion
• Impact of population explosion
• Methods to control population explosion

• Population stabilisation and birth control
• Contraceptive methods

1. Temporary method:
   a. Natural method/ Safe period / Rhythm method
   b. Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal
   c. Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
   d. Chemical means (spermicides)
   e. Mechanical means / Barrier methods
   f. Physiological (Oral) Devices
2. Permanent Methods

• Introduction
• Some Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• Other diseases of the Reproductive Tract

• IVF-ET: in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. 
• ICSI: Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection  
• GIFT: Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer 
• ZIFT: Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer  
• IUT: Intra-Uterine Transfer
• IUI: Intra-Uterine insemination
• Adoption

• Mendelism
• Father of Genetics - Gregor Johann Mendel
• Reasons for Mendel's success
• Advantages of selecting pea plant for experiment by Mendel

• Monohybrid Cross
• Representation of a Gene

• Back cross 
• Test cross 

• Mendel’s Principles of Heredity
• Mendelian inheritance - Mendel’s Laws of Heredity

 Sex Determination

1. Sex Determination in human beings 
2. Sex Determination in birds 
3. Sex Determination in honey bees  

• Types of mutation
• Mutagenic agents
• Chromosomal mutations

• Genetic Disorders
• Examples of Genetic Disorders

• Linkage
• Types of linkage: Complete linkage and Incomplete linkage
• Linkage Groups
• Sex-linkage: Complete sex linkage and Incomplete sex linkage
• Crossing Over
• Morgan’s Experiments showing linkage and crossing over

• The Discovery of DNA
• Introduction of DNA
• Composition of DNA
• Genes: The Functional Units of Heredity
• Seeds of Technology

• Packaging in Prokaryotes
• Packaging in Eukaryotes

• Functions of DNA:

1. Heterocatalytic function
2. Autocatalytic function

Process of semicoservative replication 

• Activation of Nucleotides 
• Point of Origin or Initiation point 
• Unwinding of DNA molecule 
• Replicating fork 
• Synthesis of new strands 
• Leading and Lagging strand 
• Formation of daughter DNA molecules

• Protein synthesis
• Process of protein synthesis: Transcription and Translation
• Central Dogma

• Characteristics of Genetic code 
• Mutations and Genetic Code 

• Mechanism of Translation

• Operon
• Lactose or lac operon
• Lac operon consists of the following components:

1. Regulator gene (repressor gene) 
2. Promoter gene
3. Operator gene
4. Structural genes
5. Inducer

• Role of lactose

• Human Genome Project
• Goals of HGP
• Methodologies
• Salient Features of Human Genome
• Applications and Future Challenges

• DNA Fingerprinting Technique
• Steps involved in DNA finger printing
• Application of DNA fingerprinting

• Origin of life
• Theories of origin of life

1. Big Bang Theory
2. Theory of Panspermia
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis
4. Theory of Biogenesis
5. Theory of Chemical Origin
6. Urey and Miller's experiment

• Evidence for Biological evolution:

1. Paleontological evidence
2. Evidence from Morphological and anatomical evidence
3. Embryological evidence
4. Molecular evidence
5. Evolution by natural selection (Industrial melanism)
6. Evolution by anthropogenic

• Types of Immunity

1. Innate immunity or Inborn immunity

1. Epithelial surface
2. Antimicrobial substances in blood and
   tissues
3. Cellular factors in innate immunity
4. Fever
5. Acute phase proteins (APPs)

2. Acquired immunity

1. Active immunity

1. Natural Acquired Active immunity
2. Artificial Acquired Active immunity

      II. Passive immunity

1. Natural Acquired Passive immunity
2. Artificially Acquired Passive
   immunity

• Vaccination
• Immunization

• Lymphoid organs:

1. Primary or central lymphoid organs: Thymus gland, Bone marrow
2. Secondary lymphoid organs: Lymph node, Spleen, Peyer’s patches, Tonsils, Spleen, Adenoids, MALT, GALT, BALT.

• Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
• Structure of HIV
• Transmission of HIV infection
• Replication of HIV
• Symptoms of HIV
• Diagnostic test
• Treatment of AIDS
• Prevention of AIDS

• Introduction of Cancer
• Differences between normal cell and cancer cell
• Causes of cancer
• Cancer detection and diagnosis
• Treatment of cancer
• Scope of Immunology

• Agro-Complementary Occupations
• Animal Husbandry

• Proper Care for Optimal Yield
• Dairy Farm Management
• Protecting the Cattle from Diseases
• Livestock Management: Sheep, Goats, and Horses

• Poultry Farm Management
• Components of Poultry Farm Management
• Egg and Broiler Production
• Poultry Disease

Plant breeding

• Hybridization and its technique
  Steps of Hybridization technique
  Indian Hybrid Crops 
• Mutation Breeding

         -Plant Breeding for Developing a Resistance to Insect Pest

• Single cell protein (SCP)
• Advantages of Single-Cell Protein

• Definition
• Introduction
• Tissue Culture Stages
• Processes in Tissue Culture

• Microbes in Household Food Processing
• Curd, Idli, Bread, Traditional drinks and food, Cheese
• Single cell protein (SCP)

Microbes in Industrial Production

1. Production of Alcoholic Beverages 
2. Production of organic acids 
3. Production of vitamins 
4. Production of Antibiotics 
5. Production of Enzymes 
6. Gibberellin production 

Composition of Sewage

Microorganisms in Sewage

Sewage treatment process includes four basic steps as follows:

1. Preliminary Treatment
2. Primary treatment (physical treatment)
3. Secondary treatment (biological treatment)
4. Tertiary treatment

• methanogens, biogas plant

• Microbes as Biocontrol Agents
• Examples of Microbial bio-control

• Biofertilizers
• Types of Biofertilizers
• Biofertilizer microorganisms
• Sources of Biofertilizers 
  a) Bacteria as a nitrogen fixer
  b) Fungi
  c) Cyanobacteria

• Two foremost techniques that gave birth to modem biotechnology:
  1) Genetic Engineering
  2) Maintenance of sterile ambience
• Conceptual Development of the Principles of Genetic Engineering
• Three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism

• Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)
• Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations
• Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR
• Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the Host Cell/Organism
• Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product
• Downstream Processing

• In agriculture: for production of crops tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat); pest-resistant crops (Bt-crops, RNAi with reference to Meloidogyne incognita); biofortification (golden rice, wheat – Atlas 66, maize hybrids, iron fortified rice)
• Genetically Modified Organisms - BT Crops

• In medicine: Genetically Engineered Insulin, Gene therapy - with reference to the treatment of SCID, molecular diagnosis by PCR, ELISA and use of DNA/RNA probe.

• Transgenic animals for bioactive products like alpha-1-antitrypsin for emphysema, alpha-lactalbumin

1. Normal physiology and development
2. Study of disease
3. Biological products
4. Vaccine safety
5. Chemical safety testing

• Bio Piracy and Patents
• GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee)
• Biopiracy
• Patents
• Cyber Crime
• Software Piracy
• Hacking
• Cracking

• Definition of habitat and niche

• Introduction
• Factors Related to Population Growth

Population Interactions

1. Predation (adaptations in organisms to avoid predation)
2. Competition (Interspecific, interference, Competitive exclusion, Competitive release, Gause's Competitive Exclusion Principle)
3. Parasitism 
   ⇒ Types of parasites: Ectoparasites, Endoparasites, Brood parasitism
4. Commensalism
5. Mutualism
6. Amensalism

• Ecosystem
• Basic categories of ecosystem
  1) Terrestrial
  2) Aquatic

• Ecosystems
• Components of the environment - Abiotic and biotic, Productivity, Decomposition, Energy flow, Nutrient cycling
• The function of the Ecosystem:

1. Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR), Definition of PAR, 10% Law, standing crop and standing state.
2. Productivity of an ecosystem
3. Concept of trophic level in an ecosystem
4. Energy flow
5. Food chain
6. Food Web
7. Ecological pyramids
8. Decomposition
9. Biogeochemical cycle (Nutrient cycle)
10. Types of ecosystem
11. Ecosystem services ( Benefits)
12. Ecosystem Management

• Primary production
• Productivity
• Types of productivity

1. Primary productivity
   1) Gross primary productivity (GPP)
   2) Net-primary productivity (NPP)
2. Secondary productivity

• Decomposition
• Detritus
• Steps in Decomposition
  (i) Fragmentation
  (ii) Leaching
  (iii) Catabolism
  (iv) Humification
  (v) Mineralisation
• Factors affecting the rate of decomposition

• Introduction
• Trophic Levels of The Ecosystem

• Ecological Pyramids

1. Pyramid of biomass 
2. Pyramid of numbers 
3. Pyramid of energy 

• Limitations of ecological pyramids

Ecological succession

• Classification of ecological succession
  (i) Primary Succession
  (ii) Secondary Succession
• Succession of Plants
• Kinds of plant succession
  (i) Hydrarch Succession
  (ii) Xerarch Succession

• Nutrient Cycles
• Types of Nutrient cycles

Ecological services

• Categories of ecosystem services

1. Supporting services
2. Provisioning services
3. Regulating services
4. Cultural services

Following are the main ecological services: 

• Carbon fixation 
• Oxygen release 
• Pollination 

Patterns of Biodiversity

• Latitudinal and altitudinal gradients
• Species-Area relationships

• Ecological Role of Biodiversity
• Economic Role of Biodiversity
• Scientific Role of Biodiversity
• Rivet Popper hypothesis

• Red data book
• Categories in Red Data Book
  (1) Extinct
  (2) Extinct in the wild
  (3) Critically Endangered
  (4) Endangered
  (5) Vulnerable
  (6) Near Threatened
  (7) Least Concern
  (8) Data Deficient
  (9) Not Evaluated

• Loss of Biodiversity
• Causes of Biodiversity losses
  (i) Habitat loss and fragmentation
  (ii) Overexploitation
  (iii) Alien species invasions
  (iv) Co-extinctions

• Why should we conserve Biodiversity?
  (i) Narrowly utilitarian argument
  (ii) Broadly utilitarian argument
  (iii) Ethical argument
• How do we conserve Biodiversity?
  (i) In-situ methods: Biodiversity Hotspots and Sacred Groves
  (ii) Ex-situ Conservation - Zoological parks, Botanical parks, Wildlife Safari parks

• Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
• Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
• Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve
• Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve

• Meaning
• Types of Pollution 

1. Air pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Noise Pollution 
4. Land Pollution 

• Classification of Pollutants

• Water Pollution
• Types of Water Pollutants
• Causes of Water Pollution
• Reasons of Water Pollution

• Case studies of waste water treatment (FOAM and EcoSan)

• Municipal solid wastes
  ⇒ Steps that can be taken by us to reduce the non-biodegradable waste
  (i) Burning of the waste
  (ii) Sanitary landfills
• Hospital Waste
• Electronic waste (e-waste)
• Incineration
• Recycling
• Case Study of Remedy for Plastic Waste

• Agrochemicals
• Effects of Agrochemicals
• Biomagnification
• Eutrophication
• Case Study of Organic Farming

• Greenhouse effect
• Global warming
• Effects of global warming
• Prevention of global warming

• Soil erosion and desertification
• Waterlogging and soil salinity

• Deforestation
• Causes of deforestation

• Chipko Movement