MHT CET Biology Syllabus: Check the Latest Syllabus

1. Purely proteinaceous enzymes
2. Conjugated enzymes

• Oxidoreductases 
• Transferases 
• Hydrolases
• Lyases 
• Isomerases 
• Ligases or Synthetases

• Lock and Key model
• Induced Fit model (Flexible Model)

• Metabolism
• Types of pathways

1. Catabolic pathways
2. Anabolic pathway

• Why do we need energy?
• Formation of ATP
• Animals need more energy
• Birds and mammals need still more energy

• Introduction
• Respiration involves
• Types of Respiration

• Cellular respiration
• Types of cellular respiration

1. Aerobic Respiration
2. Anaerobic Respiration

• Aerobic respiration in plant/animal
• Anaerobic respiration in plant/animal
• Differences in anaerobic respiration in plants and animals

• Glycolysis
• Glycolysis Pathway

• Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Oxidative Phosphorylation Steps

• TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
• Steps of TCA Cycle

• Fermentation
• Process of Fermentation
• Types of Fermentation

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
2. Alcohol Fermentation
3. Acetic acid Fermentation
4. Butyric acid Fermentation

• Advantages of Fermentation

• Introduction
• Modes of Nutrition
• Types of Nutrients

• Digestion
• Alimentary Canal 
• Digestive organs

• Teeth and Its Types
• Structure of a Tooth

• Introduction
• Function of the Oesophagus

• Introduction
• Function of the Stomach

• Introduction
• Functions of Small Intestine

• Introduction
• Functions of Pancreas

• Introduction
• Functions of the Large Intestine

• Introduction
• Functions of the Liver

• Digestion in the buccal cavity
• Digestion in the stomach
• Digestion in the small intestine 
• Action of pancreatic juice
• Action of intestinal juice 

• Disorders of the digestive system

1. Inflammation of the intestinal tract
2. Jaundice
3. Vomiting 
4. Diarrhoea
5. Constipation
6. Indigestion

• PEM (Protein-energy malnutrition)

1. Kwashiorkar
2. Marasmus

• Introduction
• Excretion in Plants
• Experiment
• Excretion in Human
• Formation of Urine
• Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)

• Modes of Excretion

1. Ammonotelism
2. Ureotelism 
3. Uricotelism 

• Nephridiopores
• Types of nephridia

1. Protonephridia
2. Metanephridia

• Introduction
• Human Excretory System Organs
• Excretion in Humans
• Mechanism of Excretion in Humans
• Dialysis

• Kidneys
• Internal Structure of the kidney

• Kidney tubule
• Structure of a Kidney tubule
• Blood supply to the kidney tubules

• Ultrafiltration
• Reabsorption
• Tubular secretion (Renal Secretion)
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• Collecting duct

• Excretory role of skin
• Excretory role of lungs
• Excretory role of liver

• Kidney stones
• Uremia
• Nephritis
• Renal Failure
• Diabetes
• Urinary tract infection
• Haemodialysis
• Peritoneal dialysis 
• Kidney transplant
• Renal Calculi
• Glomerulonephritis

• What is ‘Living’?
• Characteristics of living organisms

1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Cellular structure
4. Response to stimuli (Consciousness)
5. Homeostasis
6. Metabolism

• Difference  between anabolism and catabolism

• Taxonomical Aids
• Usage of Taxonomical Aids

1. Herbarium
2. Botanical Gardens
3. Biological museums
4. Zoological Parks
5. Key
6. Molecular taxonomy
7. Automated species identification tools

• Introduction
• Differences Between Plant and Animal Tissues

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Introduction
• Types of Meristematic Tissue

1. Epidermal tissue system
2. Ground tissue system
3. Vascular tissue system

• Introduction to Tissue System, Types and Characteristics of tissue System

• Formation of cambial ring
• Secondary growth in roots

• Chlorophyll
• Chloroplasts
• Too much light destroys chlorophyll

• Corpuscular Nature
• Wave Nature
• Dual Nature of Light

1. Ray optics or geometrical optics
2. Wave optics or physical optics
3. Particle nature of light

• Blackman - Law of limiting factors
• Factors affecting photosynthesis

1. External Factors:
   1) Availability of sunlight
   2) Temperature
   3) Water
   4) Humidity
   5) CO₂ Concentration [atmospheric]
   6) O₂ availability
2. Internal Factors:
   1) Number of leaves
   2) Size of leaves
   3) Leaf age
   4) Orientation of leaves
   5) Mesophyll cells and chloroplasts
   6) Internal CO₂ concentration
   7) Anatomy of leaf

• The Fundamental Unit of Life: Cell
• Discovery of Cells

• Prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic Cells 
• Mesokaryotes Cells

Components of Eukaryotic cell:

1. Cell wall
2. Cell membrane / Plasma membrane/ biomembrane
3. Cytoplasm
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
5. Golgi complex
6. Lysosomes
7. Vacuoles
8. Glyoxysomes
9. Mitochondria (Singular: Mitochondrion)
10. Plastids
11. Ribosomes
12. Nucleus
13. Cytoskeleton

• Arthritis 
  i) Osteoarthritis
  ii) Gouty arthritis (Gout)
  iii) Rheumotoid arthritis
• Osteoporosis

• Kingdom Monera - Archebacteria, Eubacteria, Mycoplasma
• Kingdom Protista - Plant like protista, Animal like Protista, Dinoflagellates, Fungi like protista, Euglenoids
• Kingdom Plantae
• Kingdom Fungi - Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes
• Kingdom Animalia

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Introduction
• Reproduction in Plants
• Importance of Variation
• Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals
• Organisms Create Copies of Themselves

Mode of Reproduction in Plant:

1. Asexual reproduction

2. Sexual reproduction

• Asexual reproduction in plant

• Different modes of asexual reproduction in plant

1. Fragmentation
2. Budding
3. Spore formation
4. Binary fission
5. Conidia formation
6. Gemma formation

• Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Stages of Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
  (i) Pre-fertilisation events
  (ii) Double fertilisation
  (iii) Post-fertilisation events

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Stamen (Male Reproductive Unit)

1. Stamen
2. Anther development
3. Structure of Anther
4. T. S. of Anther

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Microsporangium

1. Microsporangium
2. Structure of microspore
3. Microsporogenesis

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Pollen Grain

1. Pollen grain
2. Male gametophyte
3. Development of Male Gametophyte
4. Pollen product
5. Pollen viability
6. Pollen allergy

• Pistil (female Reproductive Unit)
• Ovule
• Forms of ovule

1. Orthotropous ovule
2. Anatropous ovule
3. Hemi-anatropous ovule
4. Campylotropous ovule
5. Amphitropous ovule
6. Circinotropous ovule

• Pre-fertilization: Megasporangium

1. Megasporangium
2. Megasporogenesis

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Formation of Embryo Sac

1. Formation of Embryo sac
2. Female gametophyte
3. Development of Female Gametophyte

• Abiotic Agents
• Biotic Agents

• Double Fertilization 
• Significance of Double Fertilization 
• Syngamy and Triple Fusion

• Embryogenesis
• Development of Dicot Embryo as in Capsella
• Development of Monocot (grass) Embryo 

• Process of Seed and Fruit Development  
• Significance of seed and fruit formation
• Dormancy

• Apomixis
• Classification of apomixis

1. Recurrent apomixis
2. Non-recurrent apomixis
3. Adventive apomixis

• Introduction
• Reproduction in Plants
• Importance of Variation
• Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals
• Organisms Create Copies of Themselves

• Mode of Reproduction in Animal:

1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

• Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
• Phases menstrual cycle

1. Menstrual phase
2. Follicular or proliferative phase
3. Ovulatory phase
4. Luteal or secretory phase

• Gametogenesis

1. Spermatogenesis
2. Structure of human spermatozoan
3. Oogenesis
4. Structure of ovum

• Fertilization
• Mechanism of fertilization
• Effect of fertilization
• Significance of fertilization
• Sex determination

• Cleavage
• Blastulation

• Implantation in Humans
• Implantation duration and process
• Implantation bleeding

• First Trimester
• Second Trimester
• Third (final) Trimester

• Placenta 
• Functions of Placenta

• Parturition (Birth) in Human

1. Dilation stage
2. Expulsion stage
3. After birth

• Twins - Fraternal and identical
• More than two - The triplets, Quadruplets, etc
• Test tube babies
• Two unlucky conjoined twins
• Siamese twins - A developmental abnormality

• Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) Programme
  - Goals of RCH Programmes

• Population stabilisation and birth control
• Contraceptive methods

1. Temporary method:
   a. Natural method/ Safe period / Rhythm method
   b. Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal
   c. Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
   d. Chemical means (spermicides)
   e. Mechanical means / Barrier methods
   f. Physiological (Oral) Devices
2. Permanent Methods

• Introduction
• Some Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• Other diseases of the Reproductive Tract

• IVF-ET: in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. 
• ICSI: Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection  
• GIFT: Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer 
• ZIFT: Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer  
• IUT: Intra-Uterine Transfer
• IUI: Intra-Uterine insemination
• Adoption

• Introduction to Inheritance 
• Single Inheritance 
• Multiple Inheritance 
• Multilevel Inheritance 
• Hierarchical inheritance 
• Hybrid inheritance 

• Genes
• Genetic
• Genetic Terminology

1. Character
2. Trait
3. Factor
4. Gene
5. Alleles or Allelomorphs
6. Dominant
7. Recessive
8. Phenotype
9. Genotype
10. Homozygous (pure)
11. Heterozygous
12. Pure line 
13. Monohybrid
14. F₁ generation
15. F₂ generation
16. Punnett square/ Checkerboard
17. Homologous Chromosomes 
18. Back cross
19. Test cross
20. Phenotypic ratio
21. Genotypic ratio
22. Monohybrid cross
23. Dihybrid cross

• Mendel’s Principles of Heredity
• Mendelian inheritance - Mendel’s Laws of Heredity

• Back cross 
• Test cross 

• Types of gene interaction:

1. Intragenic interactions
2. Intergenic (non-allelic) interactions

1. Incomplete dominance
2. Co-dominance
3. Multiple alleles
4. Pleiotropy

• Discovery of Chromosomes
• Chromosomes
• Variation in Chromosome Number (ploidy)
• Structure of a Chromosome

• Linkage
• Types of linkage: Complete linkage and Incomplete linkage
• Linkage Groups
• Sex-linkage: Complete sex linkage and Incomplete sex linkage
• Crossing Over
• Morgan’s Experiments showing linkage and crossing over

• Autosomal Inheritance

1. Widow’s peak
2. Phenylketonuria (PKU)

• X-linked (sex-linked) genes
• Y-linked (Holandric) genes

1. Colour blindness
2. Haemophilia (Bleeder’s disease)

 Sex Determination

1. Sex Determination in human beings 
2. Sex Determination in birds 
3. Sex Determination in honey bees  

• Genetic Disorders
• Examples of Genetic Disorders

• The Discovery of DNA
• Introduction of DNA
• Composition of DNA
• Genes: The Functional Units of Heredity
• Seeds of Technology

• Packaging in Prokaryotes
• Packaging in Eukaryotes

• Functions of DNA:

1. Heterocatalytic function
2. Autocatalytic function

Process of semicoservative replication 

• Activation of Nucleotides 
• Point of Origin or Initiation point 
• Unwinding of DNA molecule 
• Replicating fork 
• Synthesis of new strands 
• Leading and Lagging strand 
• Formation of daughter DNA molecules

• Characteristics of Genetic code 
• Mutations and Genetic Code 

• Protein synthesis
• Process of protein synthesis: Transcription and Translation
• Central Dogma

• Operon
• Lactose or lac operon
• Lac operon consists of the following components:

1. Regulator gene (repressor gene) 
2. Promoter gene
3. Operator gene
4. Structural genes
5. Inducer

• Role of lactose

• Genomics
• Classification of Genomics

1. Structural genomics
2. Functional genomics

• Application of genomics

• Human Genome Project
• Goals of HGP
• Methodologies
• Salient Features of Human Genome
• Applications and Future Challenges

• DNA Fingerprinting Technique
• Steps involved in DNA finger printing
• Application of DNA fingerprinting

• Origin of life
• Theories of origin of life

1. Big Bang Theory
2. Theory of Panspermia
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis
4. Theory of Biogenesis
5. Theory of Chemical Origin
6. Urey and Miller's experiment

• Chemical Evolution of Life (Self-assembly Theory of the Origin of Life)

1. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere
2. Formation of ammonia, water, and methane
3. Formation of simple organic molecules
4. Formation of complex organic molecules
5. Formation of Nucleic acids
6. Formation of Protobionts or Procells
7. Formation of first cell
   - Urey and Miller’s Experiment
   - RNA World Hypothesis

• Evidence for Biological evolution:

1. Paleontological evidence
2. Evidence from Morphological and anatomical evidence
3. Embryological evidence
4. Molecular evidence
5. Evolution by natural selection (Industrial melanism)
6. Evolution by anthropogenic

• Speciation
• Modes to form New species

1. Intraspecific Speciation: Allopatric speciation and Sympatric speciation
2. Interspecific Speciation: Hybridisation

• Introduction
• Activity 1
• Activity 2
• Activity 3

• Root
• Root Hair
• Structure of root hair

• Characteristics of Roots for Absorbing Water:

1. The surface area of roots is enormous
2. Root hairs contain cell sap of a higher concentration than that of the surrounding water
3. Root hairs have a thin wall

• Water Potential (ψ)
• Factors affecting water absorption

• Pathway of water across the root
• Two ways of Pathway of water

1. Apoplast pathway
2. Symplast pathway: Vacuolar and Transmembrane

1. Root Pressure Theory (Vital Theory)
2. Capillarity theory (physical force theory)
3. Cohesion-tension theory (Transpiration pull theory)
4. Adhesion

• Path of translocation

1. Vertical translocation 
2. Lateral translocation

• Mechanism of sugar transport through phloem

• Types of Transpiration

1. Stomatal Transpiration
2. Cuticular transpiration
3. Lenticular transpiration

• Opening and Closing of Stoma

• Plant Growth
• Aspect of growth:

1. Quantitative aspect of growth
2. Qualitative aspect of growth

• Meristems:

1. Apical meristem
2. Intercalary meristem
3. Lateral meristem

• Phases of Plant Growth

1. Phase of cell division/ formation (Meristematic Phase)
2. Phase of cell enlargement/ elongation (Elongation Phase)
3. Phase of Cell maturation/ differentiation (Maturation Phase)

• Growth Rates
  1) Arithmetic growth
  2) Geometric growth

• Growth curve:
  a) Lag Phase
  b) Log Phase
  c) Stationary Phase

• Plant Hormones
• Types of Plant Hormones

• Auxins
• Physiological effects and applications of auxin

• Gibberellins
• Physiological effects and application of Gibberellins

• Cytokinin
• Physiological effects and applications of cytokinin

• Ethylene
• Physiological effects and application of ethylene

• Abscisic Acid
• Physiological effects and application of ABA

• Photoperiodism

1. Short Day Plants (SDP)
2. Long Day Plants (LDP)
3. Day Neutral Plants (DNP)

• Phytochrome

• Vernalization
• Advantages of vernalization

• Sources of minerals
• Classification of minerals on the basis of their quality requirement:

1. Essential minerals 
2. Non-essential minerals 

• Classification of minerals on the Basis of their quantity requirement:

1. Microelement minerals
2. Macroelement minerals

• Symptoms of Mineral deficiency in plants
• Toxicity of Micronutrients
• Minerals salt absorption: Passive Absorption and Donnan equilibrium

• Introduction
• Respiration involves
• Types of Respiration

• Gaseous exchange in plants 
• Respiration in Animals 

• Respiratory System
• Exchange of Gases in Lungs
• Significance of Respiration

• Mechanism of Respiration
• Steps of Respiration

• Neural control
  1) Respiratory rhythm centre
  2) Pneumotaxic centre
• Chemical Control
  1) Chemosensitive Area
  2) Chemoreceptors

Disorders of the respiratory system

• Emphysema
• Chronic bronchitis
• Acute bronchitis
• Sinusitis
• Laryngitis
• Pneumonia
• Asthma
• Occupational Respiratory Disorderssilicosis, asbestosis

• Circulation
• Blood vascular system
• Types of blood vascular system

1. Open circulation
2. Closed circulation

• Types of Closed Circulation:

1. Single circulation
2. Double circulation
   - Systemic circulation
   - Pulmonary circulation
   - Coronary circulation

• Hepatic Portal System

• Blood Circulatory System
• Blood vascular system
• Blood Composition
• Blood Coagulation (Clotting)

• Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
• Blood clotting in a test tube

• Structure of the Heart
• Layers of the Heart Wall
• Chambers of the Heart
• Valves of the Heart
• Pathway of Blood through the Heart

• Cardiac Cycle
• Atrial systole (AS)
• Ventricular systole (VS)
• Cardiac output (CO)

• Blood Vessels: Structure and Functions
• Capillaries

• Lymph and Lymphatic System
• Composition of Lymph
• Functions of Lymph

• Synapse
• Properties of nerve fibres

• Introduction
• Components of Nervous System
• Neuron
• Need of Nervous System

• Central Nervous System
• Different regions of Brain and its functions

Forebrain: 

1. Olfactory lobes
2. Cerebrum
3. Diencephalon

• Spinal Cord 
• T. S. of spinal cord
• Functions of the spinal cord

• Reflexes
• Types of actions

1. Voluntary actions 
2. Involuntary actions

• Various terms associated with reflex arc:

1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Central nervous system
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector

• Peripheral Nervous System
• Types of PNS

• Sensory Receptor
• Classification of receptors

1. Exteroceptors: Receive external stimuli
2. Interoceptors : Receive stimuli coming from within the body
   
   

• Structure and Components
• Photoreceptors and Eye Muscles

• Image Formation and Light Control
• Vision Range and Optical Properties

• Structure of Human Ear
• Function of Human Ear

• Psychological disorders
• Parkinson's disease
• Alzheimer’s disease

Chemical Coordination

1. Autocrine 
2. Paracrine 
3. Endocrine 
4. Pheromone 

Human Endocrine System

• Properties of Hormones 
• Mechanism of hormone action 

• Immune System
• Cells of Immune System

1. Lymphocytes
   - Mechanism of response of T-lymphocytes to antigens
   - Mechanism of action of B-lymphocytes to antigens
2. Antigen Presenting cells

• Types of Immunity

1. Innate immunity or Inborn immunity

1. Epithelial surface
2. Antimicrobial substances in blood and
   tissues
3. Cellular factors in innate immunity
4. Fever
5. Acute phase proteins (APPs)

2. Acquired immunity

1. Active immunity

1. Natural Acquired Active immunity
2. Artificial Acquired Active immunity

      II. Passive immunity

1. Natural Acquired Passive immunity
2. Artificially Acquired Passive
   immunity

• Vaccination
• Immunization

• Antibody
• Immunoglobulins
• Structure of Antibody
• Formation of antigen-antibody complex
• Antigen on Blood Cells
• ABO Blood Groups
• Rh factor

• Introduction
• Identification of disease

• Categories of Disease

1. Extent of occurrence
   - Endemic diseases
   - Epidemic diseases
   - Pandemic diseases
   - Sporadic diseases
2. Communicability: Communicable or Infectious diseases & Non- Communicable or Non-Infectious diseases
3. Kinds of pathogens
4. Kinds of transmitting agents
5. Congenital diseases and acquired diseases
6. Other types of diseases
   - Infectious diseases
   - Hereditary diseases
   - Physiological diseases
   - Deficiency diseases

• Vector
• Vector Borne Diseases: Mosquitoes, Cockroaches and Rats

1. Malaria
2. Elephantiasis (filariasis)
3. Yellow fever
4. Dengue

• Control of mosquitoes:

1. Spraying
2. Elimination of breeding places
3. Spraying on stagnant water
4. Biological control

• Introduction of Cancer
• Differences between normal cell and cancer cell
• Causes of cancer
• Cancer detection and diagnosis
• Treatment of cancer
• Scope of Immunology

• Introduction
• Some Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• Other diseases of the Reproductive Tract

• Adolescence
• Stages of Adolescence
• Physical changes of adolescence
• Mental Health and Adolesence

• Addiction
• Causes of substances abuse during Adolescence
• Methods /measures to control drug abuse

• Drugs, Tobacco, and Alcohol Use- An Invitation to Death
• Drugs Abuse
• Effects of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
• Prevention and Control of Drug Abuse

• Alcohol Consumption
• Effect of Alcohol Addiction
• Prevention and Control of Alcohol

Plant breeding 

Plant breeding

• Hybridization and its technique
  Steps of Hybridization technique
  Indian Hybrid Crops 
• Mutation Breeding

         -Plant Breeding for Developing a Resistance to Insect Pest

• Definition
• Introduction
• Tissue Culture Stages
• Processes in Tissue Culture

• Single cell protein (SCP)
• Advantages of Single-Cell Protein

• Biofortification
• Some examples of biofortification

• Agro-Complementary Occupations
• Animal Husbandry

• Proper Care for Optimal Yield
• Dairy Farm Management
• Protecting the Cattle from Diseases
• Livestock Management: Sheep, Goats, and Horses

• Poultry Farm Management
• Components of Poultry Farm Management
• Egg and Broiler Production
• Poultry Disease

• Introduction
• The Life Cycle of Silk Worm

Microbes in human welfare

• Microbes in food preparation

1. Dosa, Dhokla and Idli
2. Microbes as the Source of Food
3. Dairy Products

Microbes in Industrial Production

1. Production of Alcoholic Beverages 
2. Production of organic acids 
3. Production of vitamins 
4. Production of Antibiotics 
5. Production of Enzymes 
6. Gibberellin production 

Composition of Sewage

Microorganisms in Sewage

Sewage treatment process includes four basic steps as follows:

1. Preliminary Treatment
2. Primary treatment (physical treatment)
3. Secondary treatment (biological treatment)
4. Tertiary treatment

Microbes in Energy Generation

• Biogas Production

1. Hydrolysis or solublization
2. Acidogenesis
3. Methanogenesis

• Microbes as Biocontrol Agents
• Examples of Microbial bio-control

• Biofertilizers
• Types of Biofertilizers
• Biofertilizer microorganisms
• Sources of Biofertilizers 
  a) Bacteria as a nitrogen fixer
  b) Fungi
  c) Cyanobacteria

• Process and Principles of Biotechnology
• Technique of gene cloning and rDNA technology 

1. Isolation of DNA (gene) from the donor organism
2. Insertion of a desired foreign gene into a cloning vector (vehicle DNA)
3. Transfer of rDNA into the suitable competent host or cloning organism
4. Selection of the transformed host cell
5.  Multiplication of transformed host cell
6.  Expression of the gene to obtain the desired product

1. Healthcare Biotechnology 
2. Agriculture 
3. Gene therapy 
4. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) 

Bioethics

• Herbicide Use and Resistance
• Effects on Untargeted Species

• Biopatent
• Biopiracy
• Examples of Biopiracy

• Habitat
• Types of Habitats

1. Aquatic habitat: Fresh water Habitat and Marine water habitat
2. Terrestrial habitat: Forest habitat, Grassland habitat, and Desert habitat

• Niche
• Types of niches

1. Spatial or habitat niche
2. Trophic niche
3. Multidimensional or hypervolume niche

• Differences between Habitat and Niche

Population

•  Natality

1. Absolute Natality
2. Realized Natality

•  Mortality

1. Absolute Mortality
2. Realized Mortality

• Sex ratio
• Age distribution and Age pyramid
• Population Growth 

Population Interactions

1. Predation (adaptations in organisms to avoid predation)
2. Competition (Interspecific, interference, Competitive exclusion, Competitive release, Gause's Competitive Exclusion Principle)
3. Parasitism 
   ⇒ Types of parasites: Ectoparasites, Endoparasites, Brood parasitism
4. Commensalism
5. Mutualism
6. Amensalism

• Introduction to Ecosystem
• Interactions in the Ecosystem

• Forest Biology
• Forest Biodiversity

1. Crown
2. Canopy
3. Understorey

• Forest Ecosystem
• Spatial pattern: Stratification and zonation

• Productivity
• Decomposition
• Nutrient cycling

• Introduction
• Trophic Levels of The Ecosystem

• Introduction
• Diversity in Animal Food
• Reproduction in Animals
• Classification of Animals Based on Habitat

• First Trophic level (Photoautotrophs)
• Second trophic level (Herbivores)
• Third trophic level (Carnivores) 
• Fourth Trophic level (Top carnivore) 

• Introduction of Food Chain
• Advantages of Food Chain

• Introduction of Food Web
• Advantages of Food Web

• Ecological Pyramids

1. Pyramid of biomass 
2. Pyramid of numbers 
3. Pyramid of energy 

• Limitations of ecological pyramids

• Nutrient Cycles
• Types of Nutrient cycles

Ecological succession

• Classification of ecological succession
  (i) Primary Succession
  (ii) Secondary Succession
• Succession of Plants
• Kinds of plant succession
  (i) Hydrarch Succession
  (ii) Xerarch Succession

Ecological services

• Categories of ecosystem services

1. Supporting services
2. Provisioning services
3. Regulating services
4. Cultural services

Following are the main ecological services: 

• Carbon fixation 
• Oxygen release 
• Pollination 

Levels of Biodiversity

• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecological (Ecosystem) diversity

Patterns of Biodiversity

• Latitudinal and altitudinal gradients
• Species-Area relationships

• Loss of Biodiversity
• Causes of Biodiversity losses
  (i) Habitat loss and fragmentation
  (ii) Overexploitation
  (iii) Alien species invasions
  (iv) Co-extinctions

• Green House Effect
• Green House gases

• Global Warming
• Causes of Global warming
• Effect of Global Warming

• Depletion of Ozone Layer
• Chemicals responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer

• Deforestation
• Causes of deforestation

• Why should we conserve Biodiversity?
  (i) Narrowly utilitarian argument
  (ii) Broadly utilitarian argument
  (iii) Ethical argument
• How do we conserve Biodiversity?
  (i) In-situ methods: Biodiversity Hotspots and Sacred Groves
  (ii) Ex-situ Conservation - Zoological parks, Botanical parks, Wildlife Safari parks