Topics
The Living World
- Introduction of the Living World
- What is ‘Living’?
- Diversity in the Living World
- Taxonomic Hierarchy of Living Organisms: Unit of Classification
- Taxonomical Aids
Class 11
Class 12
Biological Classification
- Introduction of Biological Classification
- History of Classification
- Five Kingdom Classification
- Kingdom Monera
- Division of Kingdom Monera
- Examples of Kingdom Monera
- Bacteria
- Classification of Bacteria
- Structure of Bacteria
- Life Processes in Bacteria
- Reproduction in Bacteria
- Economic Importance of Bacteria
- Kingdom Protista
- Kingdom Protista
- Protozoa
- Kingdom Fungi
- Division of Kingdom Fungi
- Fungi
- Classification of Fungi
- Reproduction in Fungi
- Economic Importance of Fungi
- Examples of Fungi
- Classification of Kingdom Plantae
- Kingdom Animalia
- Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens
Plant Kingdom
Animal Kingdom
- Kingdom Animalia
- Criteria for New System of Classification
- Classification of Kingdom Animalia
- Invertebrata and Vertebrata
- Non Chordates (Invertebrata)
- Phylum: Porifera
- Phylum: Cnidaria/Coelenterata
- Phylum: Ctenophora
- Phylum: Platyhelminthes
- Phylum: Aschelminthes
- Phylum: Annelida
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Phylum: Mollusca
- Phylum: Echinodermata
- Phylum: Hemichordata
- Phylum: Chordata
- Subphylum -Vertebrata/Craniata
- Class: Cyclostomata
- Class: Chondrichthyes
- Class: Osteichthyes
- Class: Amphibia
- Class: Reptilia
- Class: Aves
- Class: Mammalia
Morphology of Flowering Plants
- Plant Morphology
- Root System
- The Leaf
- Shoot System
- The Inflorescence
- The Flower
- Parts of Flower
- The Fruit
- The Seed
- Classification and Structure of Seeds
- Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed
- Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed
- Semi-technical Description of a Typical Flowering Plant
- Plant Forms and Functions
- Description of Some Important Families
Anatomy of Flowering Plants
- Anatomy and Functions of Different Parts of Flowering Plants
- Tissues - “The Teams of Workers”
- Plant and Animals Tissue
- Plant Tissues
- Meristems or Meristematic Tissues
- Permanent Tissue
- Simple Permanent Tissues (Supporting Tissue)
- Complex Permanent Tissues
- Complex Permanent Tissue: Xylem Structure and Function (Conducting Tissue)
- Complex Permanent Tissue: Phloem Structure and Function (Conducting Tissue)
- Tissue System
- Epidermal Tissue System
- Ground Tissue System
- Vascular Tissue System
- Anatomy of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Plants
- Dicotyledonous Root
- Monocotyledonous Root
- Dicotyledonous Stem
- Monocotyledonous Stem
- Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf
- Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf
- Secondary Growth
- Vascular Cambium
- Cork Cambium
- Secondary Growth in Roots
Structural Organisation in Animals
- Introduction of Structural Organisation in Animals
- Tissues - “The Teams of Workers”
- Animal Tissues
- Epithelial Tissue
- Connective Tissue
- Muscular Tissue
- Neural Tissues
- Earthworm - Lampito Mauritii
- Morphology of Earthworm
- Anatomy of Earthworm
- Cockroach - Periplaneta Americana
- Morphology of Cockroach
- Anatomy of Cockroach
- Frog - Rana Hexadactyla
- Morphology of Frog
- Anatomy of Frog
Cell: the Unit of Life
- Cell: Structural and Functional Unit of Life
- The Invention of the Microscope and the Discovery of Cell
- Cell Theory
- Overview of Cell
- Organisms Show Variety in Cell Number, Shape and Size
- Prokaryotic Cells
- Cell Envelope and Its Modifications
- Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
- Structure of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
- Eukaryotic Cells
- Cell Membrane
- Cell Wall
- Endomembrane System
- Mitochondria
- Plastids
- Ribosomes
- Cilia and Flagella
- Centrosome and Centrioles
- Cytoskeleton
- Nucleus
- Microbodies
- Plant Cell and Animal Cell
- Structure and Functions of Cell Envelope, Cell Membrane, Cell Wall, Cell Organelles
Biomolecules
- Biomolecules
- How to Analyse Chemical Composition?
- Primary and Secondary Metabolites
- Biomacromolecules
- Proteins
- Polysaccharides
- Biomolecules in the Cell
- Nucleic Acids
- Structure of Proteins
- Nature of Bond Linking Monomers in a Polymer
- Dynamic State of Body Constituents – Concept of Metabolism
- Metabolic Basis for Living
- The Living State
- Enzymes - Chemical Reactions
- Enzymes - High Rates of Chemical Conversions
- Nature of Enzyme Action
- Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
- Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes
- Enzymes - Co-factors
- Carbohydrates
- Structure and Function of Lipids
- Carbohydrates
Cell Cycle and Cell Division
- Cell Cycle
- Phases of Cell Cycle
- M Phase
- Karyokinesis (Nuclear Division)
- Cytokinesis
- Significance of Mitosis
- Meiosis as a Reduction Division
- Stages of Meiosis: Meiosis I
- Stages of Meiosis: Meiosis II
- Significance of Meiosis
Transport in Plants
- Introduction of Transport in Plants
- Means of Transport in Plants
- Simple Diffusion
- Facilitated Diffusion
- Active Transport
- Concept of Osmosis
- Turgidity and Flaccidity (Plasmolysis)
- Concept of Imbibition
- Comparison of Different Transport Processes
- Plant Water Relation
- Water Potential (ψ)
- Long Distance Transport of Water
- Plants Absorb Water
- Water Movement up a Plant
- Transpiration
- Transpiration - Transpiration and Photosynthesis – a Compromise
- Uptake and Transport of Mineral Nutrients
- Uptake of Mineral Ions
- Transport of Mineral Ions
- Phloem Transport - Flow from Source to Sink
- Phloem Transport - Pressure Flow Or Mass Flow Hypothesis
- Diffusion of Gases
- Structure of Stomatal Apparatus
Mineral Nutrition
- Plant Mineral Nutrition
- Methods to Study the Mineral Requirements of Plants
- Essential Mineral Elements
- Criteria for Essentiality
- Macro and Micro Nutrients and Their Role
- Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements
- Toxicity of Micronutrients
- Mechanism of Absorption of Elements
- Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements
- Biological Nitrogen Fixation
- Nitrogen Cycle
Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
- Introduction of Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
- What Do We Know?
- Early Experiments on Photosynthesis
- Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place?
- Pigments Are Involved in Photosynthesis
- Light Dependent Reaction (Hill Reaction \ Light Reaction)
- Electron Transport
- Electron Transport - Photolysis / Splitting of Water
- Electron Transport - Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation
- Electron Transport - Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
- ATP and NADPH Used
- Primary Acceptor of CO2
- The Calvin Cycle
- The C4 Pathway
- Photorespiration
- Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Respiration in Plants
- Introduction of Respiration in Plants
- Plants Breathe
- Types of Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
- Phases of Respiration: Glycolysis
- Phases of Respiration: Fermentation
- Aerobic Respiration
- Phases of Respiration: Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle Or Kreb’s Cycle)
- Phases of Respiration: Electron Transport Chain (Electron Transfer System)
- Phases of Respiration: Electron Transport System (Ets) and Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Respiratory Balance Sheet
- Amphibolic Pathways
- Respiratory Quotient (R.Q.)
Plant Growth and Development
- Introduction of Plant Growth and Development
- Growth in Plants
- Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate
- Plant Growth is Measurable
- Phases of Plant Growth
- Plant Growth Rate
- Conditions Necessary for Plant Growth
- Differentiation, Dedifferentiation and Redifferentiation
- Concept of Development
- Plant Growth Regulators
- Characteristics of Growth Regulators
- Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators
- Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators
- Photoperiodism
- Vernalisation
- Formation of Seed and Fruit
Digestion and Absorption
- Introduction of Digestion and Absorption
- Alimentary Canal
- Digestive Glands
- Role of Digestive Enzymes and Gastrointestinal Hormones
- Peristalsis, Digestion, Absorption and Assimilation of Proteins, Carbohydrates and Fats
- Calorific Values of Proteins
- Calorific Values of Carbohydrates
- Calorific Values of Fats
- Digestion of Food
- Absorption of Digested Products
- Nutritional and Digestive Tract Disorders
- Egestion of Food
- Nutritional and Digestive Tract Disorders
Breathing and Exchange of Gases
- Introduction of Breating and Exchange of Gases
- Respiratory Organs
- Human Respiratory System
- Mechanism of respiration-Breathing
- Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
- Exchange of Gases
- Transport of Gases - Transport of Oxygen
- Transport of Gases - Transport of Carbon Dioxide
- Regulation of Breathing / Respiration
- Disorders of Respiratory System
Body Fluids and Circulation
- Introduction of Body Fluids and Circulation
- Blood
- Composition of Blood: Plasma (The Liquid Portion of Blood)
- Composition of Blood: Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Composition of Blood: White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Composition of Blood: Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Blood Transfusion and Blood Groups (ABO and Rh system)
- Function of Platelets - Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
- Lymph and Lymphatic System
- Types of Closed Circulation
- Blood Circulatory System in Human
- Human Heart
- Blood Vessels
- Circulatory Pathways
- Cardiac Cycle
- Cardiac Output
- Heart Beat - Heart Sounds "LUBB" and "DUP"
- Electrocardiograph (ECG)
- Types of Closed Circulation
- Regulation of Cardiac Activity
- Disorders of Circulatory System
Excretory Products and Their Elimination
- Introduction of Excretory Products and Their Elimination
- Modes of Excretion: Ammonotelism, Ureotelism, Uricotelism
- Human Excretory System
- Function of the Kidney - “Production of Urine”
- Function of the Tubules
- Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate
- Regulation of Kidney Function
- Micturition
- Accessory Excretory Organs
- Common Disorders of the Urinary System
Locomotion and Movement
- Introduction of Locomotion and Movement
- Types of Movement
- Muscles
- Structure of Contractile Proteins
- Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
- Skeletal System
- The Human Skeleton: Axial Skeleton
- The Human Skeleton: Appendicular Skeleton
- Joints and Its Classification
- Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System
Neural Control and Coordination
- Introduction of Neural Control and Coordination
- Neural Tissue
- Neuron (Or Nerve Cell) and Its Types
- Neuron (Or Nerve Cell) and Its Types
- Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse
- Human Nervous System
- Major Division of the Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- The Human Brain - Forebrain
- The Human Brain - Forebrain
- The Spinal Cord
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Reflex and Reflex Action
- Reflex Arc
- Sense Organs
- Human Eye
- Working of the Human Eye
- Human Ear
Chemical Coordination and Integration
- Introduction of Chemical Coordination and Integration
- Human Endocrine Glands
- The Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis Gland
- The Pineal Gland
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Gland
- Thymus Gland
- Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal Gland)
- Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
- Testis
- Ovary
- Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract
- Mechanism of Hormone Action
- Role of Hormones as Messengers and Regulators
- Hypo and Hyperactivity and Related Disorders
Reproduction in Organisms
- Life Span of Organisms
- Maximum Life Span of Organisms
- Reproduction in Organisms
- Types of Reproduction
- Asexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Asexual Reproduction in Plant
- Budding
- Agamospermy
- Vegetative Reproduction
- Natural Vegetative Reproduction
- Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
- Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
- Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
- Asexual Reproduction in Animal
- Fission
- Budding
- Sporulation (Sporogenesis)
- Fragmentation
- Regeneration
- Different Phases in Sexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Pre-fertilisation Events in Organisms
- Fertilisation in Organisms
- Post-fertilisation Events in Organisms
- Parthenogenesis
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Parthenogenesis
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
- Flower - a Fascinating Organ of Angiosperms
- Whorls of Flower
- Sexuality in Flowers
- Plant Sex
- Flower Symmetry
- Parts of Flower
- Accessory Organs
- Essential Parts of Flower: Androecium
- Essential Parts of Flower: Gynoecium
- Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
- Pre-fertilisation in Flowering Plant: Structures and Events
- Development of Anther
- Transverse Section of Mature Anther (Microsporangium)
- Microsporogenesis
- Microspores and Pollen Grains
- Development of Male Gametophyte
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Pollen Grains
- Structure of Ovule (Megasporangium)
- Types of Ovules
- Megasporogenesis
- Development of Female Gametophyte or Embryo Sac
- Pollination
- Kinds of Pollination
- Self Pollination (Autogamy)
- Cross Pollination
- Agents of Pollination
- Abiotic Agents
- Biotic Agents
- Outbreeding Devices
- Artificial Hybridization
- Fertilization Process
- Fertilization Process
- Post Fertilisation in Plant: Structures and Events
- Development of Endosperm
- Post Fertilization in Plant: Development of Embryo (Embryogeny)
- Development of Seed
- Development of Fruit
- Apomixis
- Polyembryony
Human Reproduction
- Human Reproduction
- Human Reproduction
- The Male Reproductive System
- Testes
- Accessory Ducts
- Accessory Glands
- External Genitalia
- The Female Reproductive System
- Ovaries
- Accessory Ducts
- External Genitalia (Vulva)
- Accessory Glands
- Mammary Glands
- Gametogenesis
- Spermatogenesis
- Oogenesis
- Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
- Menstrual Hygiene
- Fertilization and Implantation
- Fertilization in Human
- Embryonic Development in Human
- Implantation in Human
- Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
- Parturition and Lactation
Reproductive Health
Principles of Inheritance and Variation
- Introduction of Principles of Inheritance and Variation
- Mendelism
- Terminology Related to Mendelism
- Mendel’s experiments on pea plant
- Monohybrid Cross
- Punnett Square
- Back Cross and Test Cross
- Mendelian Inheritance - Mendel’s Law of Heredity
- The Law of Dominance
- The Law of Segregation (Law of Purity of Gametes)
- The Law of Independent Assortment
- Gregor Johann Mendel – Father of Genetics
- Extensions of Mendelian Genetics (Deviation from Mendelism)
- Intragenic Interactions - Incomplete Dominance
- Intragenic Interactions - Dominance
- Intragenic Interactions - Codominance
- Multiple Alleles
- Intragenic Interactions - Pleiotropy
- Polygenic Inheritance
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
- Historical Development of Chromosome Theory
- Comparison Between Gene and Chromosome Behaviour
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: Law of Segregation
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: Law of Independent Assortment
- Linkage and Recombination
- Sex Determination
- Sex Determination in Some Insects
- Sex Determination in Human
- Sex Determination in Birds
- Sex Determination in Honey Bees
- Concept of Mutation
- Pedigree Analysis
- Genetic Disorders
- Mendelian Genetics
- Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Linkage and Crossing Over
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- Introduction of Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Its Structure
- Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
- Packaging of DNA Helix
- Search for Genetic Material
- Introduction of Search for Genetic Material
- The Genetic Material is a DNA
- Properties of Genetic Material (DNA Versus RNA)
- The RNA World
- DNA Replication
- The Experimental Proof
- The Machinery and the Enzymes
- Protein Synthesis
- Transcription
- Transcription Unit
- Transcription Unit and the Gene
- Types of RNA and the Process of Transcription
- Genetic Code
- Genetic Code
- Genetic Code
- tRNA – the Adapter Molecule
- Translation
- Mechanism of Translation
- Initiation of Translation
- Elongation of Translation
- Termination of Translation
- Regulation of Gene Expression
- Operon Concept
- Human Genome Project
- Human Genome Project
- Human Genome Project
- Human Genome Project
- Applications and Future Challenges
- DNA Fingerprinting Technique
- Polymorphism
- DNA Fingerprinting Technique
- DNA Fingerprinting Technique
Evolution
- Evolution
- Origin and Evolution of Universe and Earth
- Theories of Origin of Life
- Evolution of Life Forms - a Theory
- Evidences for Biological Evolution
- Theories of Biological Evolution
- Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
- Darwinism
- Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
- Adaptive Radiation
- Organic Evolution
- Hardy Weinberg’s Principle
- Brief Account of Evolution
- Human Evolution
Human Health and Diseases
- Introduction of Human Health and Diseases
- Common Diseases in Human Beings
- Bacterial Diseases
- Viral Diseases
- Protozoan Diseases
- Helminthic Diseases
- Fungal Diseases
- Maintenance of Personal and Public Hygiene
- Immunity
- Types of Immunity
- Innate Immunity
- Acquired Immunity
- Immune Responses
- Vaccination and Immunization
- Organ Transplantation
- Allergies (Hypersensitivity)
- Autoimmunity
- Human Immune System
- Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
- Cancer
- Drugs and Alcohol Abuse
- Adolescence - Drug and Alcohol Abuse
- Addiction and Dependence
- Effects of Drug and Alcohol
- Prevention and Control of Drugs and Alcohol Abuse
Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
Microbes in Human Welfare
- Introduction of Microbes in Human Welfare
- Microbes in Household Products
- Microbes in Industrial Production
- Microbes in Sewage Treatment
- Microbes in Production of Biogas
- Microbes as Biocontrol Agents
- Microbes as Biofertilizers
Biotechnology - Principles and Processes
- Introduction of Principles and Processes of Biotechnology
- Biotechnology
- Principles of Biotechnology
- Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
- Restriction Enzymes
- Cloning Vectors
- Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA)
- Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology
Biotechnology and Its Application
Organisms and Populations
- Introduction of Organisms and Populations
- Ecology (Organism, Population, Community and Biome)
- Organism and Its Environment
- Introduction of Organisms and Environment
- Major Abiotic Factors
- Responses to Abiotic Factors
- Population and Ecological Adaptations
- Population Attributes
- Life History Variation
- Population Growth
- Population Interactions
Ecosystem
Biodiversity and Its Conservation
- Introduction to Biodiversity and Conservation
- Biodiversity
- Patterns of Biodiversity
- Importance of Biodiversity
- Red Data Book
- Loss of Biodiversity
- Conservation of Biodiversity
- Biosphere Reserve
- National Park
- Wildlife Sanctuary
Environmental Issues
- Environmental Issues
- Pollution
- Air Pollution and Its Causes
- Sources of Air Pollution
- Prevention of Air Pollution
- Controlling Vehicular Air Pollution: a Case Study of Delhi
- Water Pollution and Its Causes
- Sources of Water Pollution
- Effects of Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Water
- A Case Study of Integrated Waste Water Treatment
- Prevention of Water Pollution
- Solid Wastes
- Agrochemicals and Their Effects
- Radioactive Wastes
- Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change
- Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere
- Degradation by Improper Resource Utilisation and Maintenance
- Deforestation and Its Causes
- Consequences of Deforestation
- Forest Conservation
- Case Study of People's Participation in Conservation of Forests
- Whorls of flower
- Complete flower
- Incomplete flower
Notes
Whorls of flower:
- There are two whorls, accessory and essential.
-
The calyx and corolla are termed accessory whorls of the flower because these structures do not participate in the process of reproduction, but only help.
-
The androecium and gynoecium are known as essential whorls because they are directly related with reproduction.
- Flowers can either be Complete or Incomplete flowers.
1) Complete Flower:
The flower is said to be complete when it contains all four whorls i.e., a calyx of sepals, a corolla of petals, an androecium of stamens, and a gynoecium of carpels (pistil). A complete flower consists of two different parts - the vegetative part and the reproduction part.
2) Incomplete Flower:
An incomplete flower is defined as a flower missing any of its main parts in its natural form, i.e., petals, sepals, stamens, or pistils.
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