Topics
Laws of Motion
- Motion and Rest
- Distance and Displacement
- Speed and Velocity
- Effect of Speed and Direction on Velocity
- Uniform and Non-uniform Motion
- Acceleration and Retardation
- Types of Acceleration
- Graphical Representation of Motion
- Displacement - Time Graph Or Distance - Time Graph
- Velocity - Time Graphs
- Equations of Motion by Graphical Method
- Derivation of Velocity - Time Relation by Graphical Method
- Derivation of Displacement - Time Relation by Graphical Method
- Derivation of Displacement - Velocity Relation by Graphical Method
- Uniform Circular Motion (UCM)
- Newton’s Laws of Motion
- Newton's First Law of Motion
- Newton's Second Law of Motion
- Newton's Third Law of Motion
- Conservation of Linear Momentum and Its Principle
Work and Energy
Current Electricity
- Electricity
- Potential and Potential Difference
- Free Electrons
- Electric Current
- Ohm's Law (V = IR)
- Resistance and Resistivity of a Conductor
- Electric Circuit
- Symbols and Functions of Various Components of an Electric Circuits
- Conductors and Insulators
- Experimental Verification of Ohm’s Law
- System of Resistors
- Resistors in Series
- Resistors in Parallel
- Domestic Electrical Connections
- Precautions to Be Taken While Using Electricity
Measurement of Matter
- Laws of Chemical Combination
- Law of Conservation of Matter (Law of Conservation of Mass)
- Law of Constant Proportions (Law of Definite Proportions)
- Atoms: Building Blocks of Matter
- Atomic Mass
- Symbols Used to Represent Atoms of Different Elements
- Molecules of Elements and Compounds
- Molecular Mass
- Mole Concept
- Avogadro’s Number
- Valency
- Variable Valency
- Ions (Radicals) and Its Types
- Chemical Formulae of Compounds
Acids, Bases and Salts
- Concept of Acid, Base, and Salt
- Ionic Compounds
- Dissociation of Ionic Compounds
- Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases
- Basicity and Acidity
- Ph of Solution
- Universal Indicators
- Neutralization Reaction
- Reactions of Acids
- Reactions of Bases
- Salts
- Classification of Salts
- Water of Crystallization
- Ionic Compounds
- Electrolysis
- Electrolysis of Water
Classification of Plants
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
Useful and Harmful Microbes
Environmental Management
- Weather and Climate
- Importance of Weather in the Living World
- Meteorology
- India Meteorological Department
- Solid Waste Management
- Waste and Its Categories
- Biodegradable Waste
- Non-Biodegradable Wastes
- Harmful effects of solid waste
- Necessity of Solid Waste Management
- 7 Principles of Solid Waste Management
- Period Required for Degradation of Waste
- Disaster Management
- First Aid and Emergency Action
- Methods of Transporting Victims/Patients Safely
Information Communication Technology
Reflection of Light
- Introduction to Light
- Mirrors
- Plane Mirror
- Spherical Mirrors
- Concave Mirror
- Convex Mirror
- Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors
- Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams
- Image Formation by Concave Mirror
- Image Formation by Convex Mirror
- Divergence and Convergence of Light
- Sign Convention
- Mirror Equation/Formula
- Linear Magnification (M) Due to Spherical Mirrors
Study of Sound
Carbon : An Important Element
- Carbon: A Versatile Element
- Properties of Carbon
- Allotropy and Allotropes of Carbon
- Crystalline Allotropes of Carbon: Diamond
- Crystalline Allotropes of Carbon: Graphite
- Crystalline Allotropes of Carbon: Fullerene
- Non-crystalline/Amorphous Forms: Coal
- Non-crystalline/Amorphous Forms: Charcoal
- Non-crystalline/Amorphous Forms: Coke
- Hydrocarbons
- Solubility of Carbon
- Reaction of Carbon
- Carbon Dioxide
- Fire Extinguisher
- Methane
- Biogas Plant
Substances in Common Use
- Important Salts in Daily Life
- Properties and Uses of Sodium Chloride
- Preparation and Uses of Baking Soda
- Preparation and Uses of Bleaching Powder
- Preparation and Uses of Washing Soda
- Some Crystalline Salts
- Soap
- Radioactivity
- Nature of Radioactive Radiation
- Characteristics of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Rays
- Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
- Hazards of Radioactive Substances and Radiation
- Chemical Substances in Day to Day Life
- Food Colours and Essences
- Dye
- Artificial Colours
- Deodorant
- Teflon
- Powder Coating
- Anodizing
- Ceramic
Life Processes in Living Organisms
- Transportation in Living Organisms
- Transportation in Plant
- Transportation of Water in Plants
- Transportation of Food and Other Substances in Plants
- Excretion
- Excretion in Plants
- Human Excretory System
- Dialysis and Artificial Kidney
- Control and Co-ordination
- Control and Co-ordination in Plants
- Control and Co-ordination in Human Being
- Nervous Control
- Human Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- Chemical Control
- Endocrine Glands: Location and Important Functions
Heredity and Variation
- Heredity or Inheritance
- Inherited Traits and Expression of Traits
- Chromosomes - The Carriers of Heredity
- Types of Chromosomes
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Its Structure
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- Gregor Johann Mendel – Father of Genetics
- Mendelian Inheritance - Mendel’s Law of Heredity
- Monohybrid Cross
- Dihybrid Cross
- Genetic Disorders
- Disorders Due to Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Diseases Occuring Due to Mutation in Single Gene (Monogenic Disorders)
- Mitochondrial Disorder
- Disorders Due to Mutations in Multiple Genes : (Polygenic Disorders)
Introduction to Biotechnology
- Tissues - “The Teams of Workers”
- Animal Tissues
- Epithelial Tissue
- Connective Tissue
- Muscular Tissue
- Nervous Tissue
- Plant Tissues
- Meristems or Meristematic Tissues
- Permanent Tissue
- Simple Permanent Tissues (Supporting Tissue)
- Complex Permanent Tissues
- Biotechnology
- Tissue Culture
- Changes in Agricultural Management Due to Biotechnology
- Application of Biotechnology in Floriculture, Nurseries and Forestry
- Agritourism
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock)
- Dairy Farming
- Poultry Farming
- Sericulture
Observing Space : Telescopes
- Basicity and Acidity
- Experiment
- Concentration of Solutions
Basicity and Acidity:
The terms basicity of acids and acidity of bases describe the number of ions that acids or bases can release when they dissociate in water. These properties are important for understanding the strength and reactivity of acids and bases.
1. Basicity of Acids
The basicity of an acid refers to the number of H⁺ ions (protons) that can be released by one molecule of the acid when it dissociates in water.
Types of Acids Based on Basicity:
| Type of Acid | Monobasic Acids | Dibasic Acids | Tribasic Acids |
| Definition | These acids release one H⁺ ion per molecule. | These acids release two H⁺ ions per molecule. | These acids release three H⁺ ions per molecule. |
| Example | Hydrochloric acid (HCl) | Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) | Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) |
| Dissociation Reaction | HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻ | H₂SO₄ → H⁺ + HSO₄⁻ , HSO₄⁻ → H⁺ + SO₄²⁻ | H₃PO₄ → H⁺ + H₂PO₄⁻ , H₂PO₄⁻ → H⁺ + HPO₄²⁻ , HPO₄²⁻ → H⁺ + PO₄³⁻ |
| Basicity | 1 | 2 | 3 |
2. Acidity of Bases
The acidity of a base refers to the number of OH⁻ ions (hydroxide ions) that can be released by one molecule of the base when it dissociates in water.
| Type of Base | Monoacidic Bases | Diacidic Bases | Triacidic Bases |
| Definition | These bases release one OH⁻ ion per molecule. | These bases release two OH⁻ ions per molecule. | These bases release three OH⁻ ions per molecule. |
| Example | Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) | Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) | Aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)₃) |
| Dissociation Reaction | NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻ | Ca(OH)₂ → Ca²⁺ + 2OH⁻ | Al(OH)₃ → Al³⁺ + 3OH⁻ |
| Acidity | 1 | 2 | 3 |
Experiment
1. Aim: To observe the effect of solute concentration (lemon juice) on the taste of a solution.
2. Requirements: lemon (1), two beakers, knife, drinking water, stirring rod, and measuring cylinder (to measure water).
3. Procedure: Cut a lemon into two equal halves. Squeeze the juice from each half into two separate beakers.
Add Water:
- In the first beaker, add 10 ml of water.
- In the second beaker, add 20 ml of water.
Stir both solutions thoroughly using a stirring rod. Taste the solution in both beakers and observe the difference in sourness.
Solution of lemon juice
4. Observations
- The solution in the first beaker (with 10 ml of water) tastes more sour.
- The solution in the second beaker (with 20 ml of water) tastes less sour.
5. Conclusion: The sour taste is due to the lemon juice (solute) in the solutions. Although the quantity of lemon juice is the same in both beakers, the concentration of the solute is higher in the first beaker because it has less water (solvent). The solution in the second beaker is more diluted because the ratio of solute to solvent is smaller.
This experiment shows that the concentration of a solution affects its properties, such as taste.
Concentration of Solutions:
The concentration of a solution refers to the proportion of solute (the substance being dissolved) in the solution. It is an important property that determines how the solution behaves and impacts its characteristics.
1. The Properties of a Solution Depend on
- The nature of the solute (e.g., salt, sugar, acid, etc.).
- The nature of the solvent (e.g., water, alcohol, etc.).
- The proportion of solute in the solution.
2. Types of Solutions Based on Concentration
- Concentrated Solution: A solution with a high proportion of solute compared to the solvent.
- Dilute Solution: A solution with a low proportion of solute compared to the solvent.
3. Units to Express Concentration
- Grams per Litre (g/L): Measures the mass of solute (in grams) dissolved in 1 litre of solution.
- Molarity (M): Measures the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of solution.
Represented as: [NaCl] = 1M (1 Molar)
This means 1 mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) is dissolved in 1 litre of solution.
